Abstract
Observer status within the Arctic Council has become a highly prized participatory privilege in recent years. Thus far, the extensive literature on current and prospective Observers has focused on the aspirations of particular states and the convoluted position of the European Union, while lesser attention has been accorded to the role of Inter-Parliamentary and Intergovernmental Organisations within the Arctic Council. This Chapter therefore contributes to the wider literature on Polar governance by examining the aspirations and approaches of two particular Observers whose Arctic ambitions have been relatively little studied to date, namely the Nordic Council and the West Nordic Council. This Chapter accordingly traces the development of discernible Arctic strategies within these two bodies, for whom engagement with the Arctic Council follows divergent and intriguing patterns. This Chapter also considers the specific contributions that these organisations can respectively make to the Arctic Council and the significance that Observer status holds both for the wider work of these particular institutions, and the implications this may have for their individual constituent members.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Althingi. (2017). Iceland’s policy on matters concerning the Arctic region: Parliamentary resolution 25/151. Althingi.
Althingi. (2011). Parliamentary resolution on Iceland’s Arctic policy. Althingi.
Anderson, S. V. (1963). Negotiations for the Nordic Council. Nordisk Tidsskrift for International Ret, 33, 23–33.
Arctic Council. (1998). Arctic Council rules of procedure. Arctic Council.
Arctic Council. (2006). Common objectives and priorities for the Norwegian, Danish and Swedish chairmanships of the Arctic Council (2006–2012). Arctic Council.
Arctic Council. (2018). Observer review report of the West Nordic Council, 2018. Arctic Council.
Arctic Council. (2019). Observer review report of the Nordic Council of Ministers, 2020. Arctic Council.
Arctic Council. (2020). Observer review report of the west Nordic Council, 2020. Arctic Council.
Arctic Council. (Undated). Nordic Council of Ministers (NCM). https://arctic-council.org/about/observers/intergov-interparl/nordic-council-of-ministers-ncm/. Accessed 2022, January 26.
Bailes, A. J. K. (2014). The small nations of the wider Arctic space: Security challenges, policy options. Yearbook of Polar Law, 6, 598–628.
Bailes, A. J. K., & Ólaffson, K. T. (2017). The EU crossing Arctic Frontiers: The Barents Euro-Arctic Council, Northern Dimension, and EU-West Nordic relations. In N. Liu, E. A. Kirk, & T. Henriksen (Eds.), The European Union and the Arctic (pp. 40–62). Brill.
Bailes, A. J. K., & Ólafsson, K. T. (2013). Northern Europe and the Arctic agenda: Roles of Nordic and other sub-regional organizations. Yearbook of Polar Law, 5, 45–73.
Barents Observer. (2021, June 11). Will Greenland develop an Arctic strategy of its own? The Barents Observer..
Bergman, A. (2006). Adjacent internationalism: The concept of solidarity and post-cold war Nordic-Baltic relations. Cooperation and Conflict, 41, 73–97.
Caddell, R. (2020). Marine mammals at the poles. In K. N. Scott & D. L. VanderZwaag (Eds.), Research handbook on polar law (pp. 217–248). Edward Elgar.
Caron, D. D. (1995). The international whaling commission and the North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission: The institutional risks of coercion in consensual structures. American Journal of International Law, 89, 154–174.
Cela, M., & Hansson, P. (2021). A challenging chairmanship in turbulent times. The Polar Journal, 11, 43–56.
Dodds, K., & Ingimundarson, V. (2012). Territorial nationalism and Arctic geopolitics: Iceland as an Arctic Coastal State. The Polar Journal, 2, 21–37.
Etzold, T. (2016). Nordic institutionalized cooperation in a larger regional setting. In J. Strang (Ed.), Nordic cooperation: A European region in transition (pp. 142–164). Routledge.
Etzold, T. (2020). The Nordic Council of Ministers: Aspirations for more political relevance. Politics and Governance, 8, 11–20.
Eythórsson, G. T., & Hovgaard, G. (2018). The West-Nordic region and the Arctic. In G. Baruchello, J. T. Kristjánsson, K. M. Jóhanssdóttir, & S. Ingimarsson (Eds.), No one is an island: An Icelandic perspective (pp. 83–110). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Faroe Islands. (2013). The Faroe Islands – A nation in the Arctic. The Prime Minister’s Office: The Foreign Service.
Graczyk, P. (2011). Observers in the Arctic Council – Evolution and prospects. Yearbook of Polar Law, 3, 575–633.
Graczyk, P., & Koivurova, T. (2014). A new era in the Arctic Council’s external relations? Broader consequences of the Nuuk Observer rules for Arctic governance. Polar Record, 50, 225–236.
Hennig, M., & Caddell, R. (2017). On thin ice? Arctic indigenous communities, the European Union and the sustainable use of marine mammals. In N. Liu, E. A. Kirk, & T. Henriksen (Eds.), The European Union and the Arctic (pp. 296–341). Brill.
Holm-Olsen, I. (2020). Greenland’s role in Arctic governance and cross-border relations with sub-national governments. In T. S. Axworthy, S. French, & E. Tsui (Eds.), Lessons from the Arctic: The role of regional government in international affairs (pp. 266–283). Mosaic Press.
Ingimundarson, V. (2015). Framing the National Interest: The political uses of the Arctic in Iceland’s foreign and domestic policies. The Polar Journal, 5, 82–100.
Ingimundarson, V. (2020). Iceland as an Arctic state. In K. S. Coates & C. Holroyd (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of Arctic law and politics (pp. 251–265). Palgrave.
Jessup, P. C. (1957). International parliamentary law. American Journal of International Law, 51, 396–402.
Jóhannsdóttir, E. (2017). Focus on the West Nordic Council. Journal of the North Atlantic & Arctic. https://www.jonaa.org/content/2017/10/12/focus-on-the-west-nordic-council?rq=west%20nordic%20council. Accessed 2022, January 26.
Kingdom of Denmark. (2011). Kingdom of Denmark strategy for the Arctic 2011–2020. Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Knecht, S. (2017). The politics of Arctic international cooperation: Introducing a dataset on stakeholder participation in Arctic Council meetings, 1998–2015. Cooperation and Conflict, 52, 203–223.
Koivurova, T. (2019). The current and future role of non-Arctic states in Arctic governance. In A. Shibata, L. Zou, N. Sellheim, & M. Scopelliti (Eds.), Emerging legal orders in the Arctic: The role of non-Arctic actors (pp. 11–26). Routledge.
Koivurova, T., Kankaanpää, P., & Stępień, A. (2015). Innovative environmental protection: Lessons from the Arctic. Journal of Environmental Law, 27, 285–311.
Koivurova, T., Hasanat, W., Graczyk, P., & Kuusama, T. (2017). China as an observer in the Arctic Council. In T. Koivurova, T. Qin, S. Duyck, & T. Nykänen (Eds.), Arctic law and governance: The role of China and Finland (pp. 153–180). Hart Publishing.
Liu, N. (2020). Emerging and non-traditional actors at the poles. In K. N. Scott & D. L. VanderZwaag (Eds.), Research handbook on polar law (pp. 163–180). Edward Elgar.
Łuszczuk, M. (2015). Inter-parliamentary institutions and Arctic governance. Arctic Yearbook, 4, 1–17.
Malamud, A., & Stavridis, S. (2011). Parliaments and parliamentarians as international actors. In B. Renalda (Ed.), The Ashgate research companion to non-state actors (pp. 101–115). Routledge.
Molenaar, E. J. (2012). Current and prospective roles of the Arctic Council system within the context of the law of the sea. International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 27, 553–595.
NCM. (1995). Proposal B157/m. Nordic Council of Ministers.
NCM. (1996). Proposal from the Council of Ministers for a New Arctic Cooperation Programme, 1–2; reproduced by the Arctic Council as Document SAO 2001/B/9.2.
NCM. (1999a). Nordic action plan to protect the natural environment and cultural heritage of the Arctic – Greenland, Iceland and Svalbard. Nordic Council of Ministers.
NCM. (1999b). Nordic Council of Ministers’ Arctic cooperation Programme 2000–2002. Nordic Council of Ministers.
NCM. (2002). Nordic Council of ministers’ Arctic cooperation Programme 2003–2005. Nordic Council of Ministers.
NCM. (2011). Nordic Council of Ministers’ Arctic cooperation Programme 2012–2014. Nordic Council of Ministers.
NCM. (2017). Nordic Council of Ministers’ Arctic cooperation Programme 2018–2021. Nordic Council of Ministers.
NCM. (2021). Nordic Council of Ministers’ Arctic cooperation Programme 2022–2024. Nordic Council of Ministers.
Neilsson, R. H. (2006). Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic: Greenland, Iceland and Svalbard. Nordic Council of Ministers.
Nielsson, E. T. (2014). The West Nordic Council in the Global Arctic. Institute of International Affairs: Working papers. https://ams.overcastcdn.com/documents/the_west_nordic_council.pdf. Accessed 2022, January 26.
Niemivuo, M., & Viikari, L. (2019). Nordic cooperation at a crossroads. Yearbook of Polar Law, 10, 103–131.
Nordic Cooperation Treaty. (1962). Agreement between Finland, Denmark, Iceland, Norway and Sweden Concerning Cooperation 1962, 434 UNTS 145.
Petrén, G. (1959). The Nordic Council: A unique factor in international law. Nordisk Tidsskrift for International Ret, 29, 346–362.
Pinsky, M., et al. (2018). Preparing Ocean governance for species on the move. Science, 360, 1189–1191.
Platjouw, F. M., Stendal, E. H., & Borch, T. (2018). From Arctic science to international law: The road towards the Minamata convention and the role of the Arctic Council. Arctic Review on Law and Politics, 9, 226–243.
Raspotnik, A. (2018). The European Union and the geopolitics of the Arctic. Edward Elgar.
Šabič, Z. (2008). Building democratic and responsible global governance: The role of international parliamentary institutions. Parliamentary Affairs, 61, 255–271.
Smieszek, M. (2019). Do the cures match the problem? Reforming the Arctic Council. Polar Record, 55, 121–131.
Steinburg, P. E., & Dodds, K. (2015). The Arctic Council after Kiruna. Polar Record, 51, 108–110.
Stokke, O. S. (2007). Nordic Council of Ministers’ Arctic cooperation 2003–2005: An evaluation. Nordic Council of Ministers.
Strand, K., & Siira, T. (2005). NARP highlights: Contributions of the Nordic Arctic research Programme. Nordic Council of Ministers.
United Nations. (2013). Minamata convention on mercury. 2017 UNTS 54669.
WNC. (2012). Recommendation 2/2012. West Nordic Council.
WNC. (2015a). Strategic assessment for regional Arctic cooperation. West Nordic Council.
WNC. (2015b). Recommendation 3/2015. West Nordic Council.
WNC. (2017a). Recommendation 1/2017. West Nordic Council.
WNC. (2017b). Recommendation 3/2017. West Nordic Council.
WNC. (2019). Recommendation 2/2019. West Nordic Council.
WNC. (2020). Recommendation 2/2020. West Nordic Council.
WNC. (2021). Recommendation 1/2021. West Nordic Council.
Woon, C. Y., & Dodds, K. (Eds.). (2020). ‘Observing’ the Arctic: Asia in the Arctic Council and beyond. Edward Elgar.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Caddell, R. (2022). Strength in Numbers? The Nordic Ministerial and Parliamentary Groupings as Observers in the Arctic Council. In: Sellheim, N., Menezes, D.R. (eds) Non-state Actors in the Arctic Region. Springer Polar Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12459-4_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12459-4_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-12458-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-12459-4
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)