Abstract
Primate tourism, where people travel and see non-human primates, is a rapidly growing activity. This chapter introduces the history and the multidimensions of primate tourism across the world. We then focus on tourism associated with wild primate viewing and assess the costs and benefits of primate tourism related to habitat protection, revenue generation, co-existence with local communities, knowledge sharing, provisioning, health and habituation. Following this assessment, we explore the different drivers for human-primate interactions associated with primate tourism. This chapter concludes by summarising responsible primate tourism guidelines.
Keywords
- Health
- Human-primate interactions
- Management
- Provisioning
- Viewing primates
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Alexander, S. E. (2000). Resident attitudes towards conservation and black howler monkeys in Belize: The Community Baboon Sanctuary. Environmental Conservation, 27(4), 341–350.
Allan, A. T. L., Bailey, A. L., & Hill, R. A. (2020). Habituation is not neutral or equal: Individual differences in tolerance suggest an overlooked personality trait. Science Advances, 6, 28. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz0870
Allendorf, T. D. (2007). Residents’ attitudes toward three protected areas in Southwestern Nepal. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16, 2087–2102.
Ampumuza, C., & Driessen, C. (2020). Gorilla habituation and the role of animal agency in conservation and tourism development at Bwindi, South Western Uganda. Journal of Environmental Planning E Nature and Space, 4, 4. https://doi.org/10.1177/2514848620966502
Ando, C., Takenoshita, Y., & Yamagiwa, J. (2008). Progress of habituation of western lowland gorillas and their reaction to observers in Moukalaba-Doudou National Park, Gabon. African Study Monographs, 39, 55–69.
Asquith, P. J. (1989). Provisioning and the study of free-ranging primates: History, effects, and prospects. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 32, 129–158.
Balasubramaniam, K. N., Marty, P. R., Arlet, M. E., et al. (2020a). Impact of anthropogenic factors on affiliative behaviors among bonnet macaques. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 171, 704–717.
Balasubramaniam, K. N., Marty, P. R., Samartino, S., et al. (2020b). Impact of individual demographic and social factors on human–wildlife interactions: A comparative study of three macaque species. Scientific Reports, 10, 1–16.
Beisner, B. A., Heagerty, A., Seil, S. K., et al. (2015). Human–wildlife conflict: Proximate predictors of aggression between humans and rhesus macaques in India. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 156(2), 286–294.
Blom, A., Cipolletta, C., & Prins, H. H. T. (2004). Behavioural responses of gorillas to habituation in the Dzanga-Ndoki Natonal Park, Central African Republic. International Journal of Primatology, 25, 179–196.
Borg, C., Majolo, B., Qarro, M., & Semple, S. (2014). A comparison of body size, coat condition and endoparasite diversity of wild Barbary macaques exposed to different levels of tourism. Anthrozoös, 27, 49–63.
Boza, M. A. (1993). Conservation in action: Past, present, and future of the National Park System of Costa Rica. Conservation Biology, 7, 239–247.
Brotcorne, F., Maslarov, C., Wandia, I. N., et al. (2014). The role of anthropic, ecological, and social factors in sleeping site choice by long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). American Journal of Primatology, 76, 1140–1150.
Bruner, A. G., Gullison, R. E., Rice, R. E., & Da Fonseca, G. A. (2001). Effectiveness of parks in protecting tropical biodiversity. Science, 291(5501), 125–128.
Campbell, J. (2013). White-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) of Cahuita National Park, Costa Rica: Human foods and human interactions. Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/13620
Campbell, L. A., Tkaczynski, P. J., Mouna, M., et al. (2016). Behavioral responses to injury and death in wild Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). Primates, 57, 309–315.
Carne, C., Semple, S., MacLarnon, A., et al. (2017). Implications of tourist–macaque interactions for disease transmission. EcoHealth, 14, 704–717.
Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996). Tourism, ecotourism and protected areas. IUCN.
CITES Trade Database. (2020). https://trade.cites.org/. Accessed 14 Dec 2020.
Clark, L., Butler, K., Ritchie, K. L., & Maréchal, L. (2020). The importance of first impression judgements in interspecies interactions. Scientific Reports, 10, 1–10.
Cochrane, J. (2006). Indonesian national parks: Understanding leisure users. Annals of Tourism Research, 33, 979–997.
Curtin, S. C. (2005). Nature, wild animals and tourism: An experiential view. Journal of Ecotourism, 4, 1–15.
Curtin, S. C. (2010). The self-presentation and self-development of serious wildlife tourists. International Journal of Tourism Research, 12, 17–33.
de la Torre, S., Snowdon, C. T., & Bejarano, M. (2000). Effects of human activities on wild pygmy marmosets in Ecuadorian Amazonia. Biological Conservation, 94, 153–163.
Estrada, A., Garber, P. A., Rylands, A. B., et al. (2017). Impending extinction crisis of the world’s primates: Why primates matter. Science Advances, 3(1), e1600946.
Fuentes, A., & Gamerl, S. (2005). Disproportionate participation by age/sex classes in aggressive interactions between long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) and human tourists at Padangtegal monkey forest, Bali, Indonesia. American Journal of Primatology, 66, 197–204.
Fuentes, A., & Hockings, K. J. (2010). The ethnoprimatological approach in primatology. American Journal of Primatology, 72, 841–847.
Fuentes, A., Shaw, E., & Cortes, J. (2007). Qualitative assessment of macaque tourist sites in Padangtegal, Bali, Indonesia, and the upper rock nature reserve, Gibraltar. International Journal of Primatology, 28, 1143–1158.
Fuentes, A., Kalchik, S., Gettler, L., et al. (2008). Characterizing human-macaque interactions in Singapore. American Journal of Primatology, 70, 879–883.
Fuentes, A., Rompis, A. L., Putra, I., et al. (2011). Macaque behavior at the human–monkey interface: The activity and demography of semi-free-ranging Macaca fascicularis at Padangtegal, Bali, Indonesia. In M. D. Gumert, A. Fuentes, & L. Jones-Engel (Eds.), Monkeys on the edge: Ecology and management of long-tailed macaques and their interface with humans (pp. 159–179). Cambridge University Press.
Goldberg, T. L., Gillespie, T. R., Rwego, I. B., et al. (2007). Patterns of gastrointestinal bacterial exchange between chimpanzees and humans involved in research and tourism in western Uganda. Biological Conservation, 135, 511–517.
Goldsmith, M. L. (2014). Mountain gorilla tourism as a conservation tool: Have we tipped the balance? In A. E. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism: A tool for conservation? (pp. 177–198). Cambridge University Press.
Grossberg, R., Treves, A., & Naughton-Treves, L. (2003). The incidental ecotourist: Measuring visitor impacts on endangered howler monkeys at a Belizean archaeological site. Environmental Conservation, 30, 40–51.
Hansen, M. F., Wahyudi, H. A., Supriyanto, S., & Damanik, A. R. (2015). The interactions between long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) and tourists in Baluran National Park, Indonesia. Journal of Indonesian Natural History, 3, 36–41.
Hansen, M. F., Nawangsari, V. A., Beest, F. M., et al. (2019). Estimating densities and spatial distribution of a commensal primate species, the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis). Conservation Science and Practice, 1, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.88
Hansen, M. F., Ellegaard, S., Moeller, M. M., et al. (2020). Comparative home range size and habitat selection in provisioned and non-provisioned long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Baluran National Park, East Java, Indonesia. Contribution to Zoology, 89, 393–411.
Hanson, K. T., & Riley, E. P. (2018). Beyond neutrality: The human–primate interface during the habituation process. International Journal of Primatology, 39, 852–877.
Hasan, M. K., Aziz, M. A., Alam, S. R., et al. (2013). Distribution of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in Bangladesh: Inter-population variation in group size and composition. Primate Conservation, 26, 125–132.
Hatfield, R. (2005). Economic value of the Bwindi and Virunga gorilla mountain forests. African Wildlife Foundation.
Hill, C. M. (2000). Conflict of interest between people and baboons: Crop raiding in Uganda. International Journal of Primatology, 21, 299–315.
Hvenegaard, G. T. (2014). Economic aspects of primate tourism associated with primate conservation. In A. E. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism. A tool for conservation? (pp. 259–278). Cambridge University Press.
International Union for Conservation of Nature. (2008). Guidelines for applying protected area management categories. Dudley N (ed). Downloaded from: https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/PAG-021.pdf
Jaman, M. F., & Huffman, M. A. (2013). The effect of urban and rural habitats and resource type on activity budgets of commensal rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in Bangladesh. Primates, 54, 49–59.
Jolly, A. (2009). Coat condition of ringtailed lemurs, Lemur catta at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar: I. differences by age, sex, density and tourism, 1996–2006. American Journal of Primatology, 71, 191–198.
Jones-Engel, L., Engel, G. A., Schillaci, M. A., et al. (2005). Primate-to-human retroviral transmission in Asia. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 11, 1028.
Kaburu, S. S., Marty, P. R., Beisner, B., et al. (2019). Rates of human–macaque interactions affect grooming behavior among urban-dwelling rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 168, 92–103.
Kalpers, J., Williamson, E. A., Robbins, M. M., et al. (2003). Gorillas in the crossfire: Population dynamics of the Virunga mountain gorillas over the past three decades. Oryx, 37, 326–337.
Kauffman, L. (2014). Interactions between tourists and white-faced monkeys (Cebus capucinus) at Manuel Antonio National Park, Quepos, Costa Rica. In A. E. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism. A tool for conservation? (pp. 230–244). Cambridge University Press.
Kemnitz, J. W., Sapolsky, R. M., Altmann, J., et al. (2002). Effects of food availability on serum insulin and lipid concentrations in free-ranging baboons. American Journal of Primatology, 57, 13–19.
Klegarth, A. R., Hollocher, H., Jones-Engel, L., et al. (2017). Urban primate ranging patterns: GPS-collar deployments for Macaca fascicularis and M. sylvanus. American Journal of Primatology, 79, 1–17.
Knight, J. (2006). Monkey mountain as a megazoo: Analyzing the naturalistic claims of “wild monkey parks” in Japan. Society and Animals, 14, 245–264.
Knight, J. (2009). Making wildlife viewable: Habituation and attraction. Society and Animals, 17, 167–184.
Knight, J. (2010). The ready-to-view wild monkey: The convenience principle in Japanese wildlife tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 37, 744–762.
Knight, J. (2011). Herding monkeys to paradise: How macaque troops are managed for tourism in Japan. Brill.
Koirala, S., Chalise, M. K., Katuwal, H. B., et al. (2017). Diet and activity of Macaca assamensis in wild and semi-provisioned groups in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal. Folia Primatologica, 88, 57–74.
Kone, I. (2020). SOS African Wildlife and the COVID-19 pandemic. Available via: https://www.youtube.com/watch?fbclid=IwAR0Z0PPyRo3HhM4K1BehtnlXwyVXMNOuXzzboZJzW96s-bJsePYq-OY9cHc&v=8VJEDz6_J4Y&feature=youtu.be&ab_channel=IUCNSOS-SaveOurSpecies. Accessed 7 Feb 2021.
Kurita, H. (2014). Provisioning and tourism in free-ranging Japanese macaques. In A. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism. A tool for conservation? (pp. 44–55). Cambridge University Press.
Lappan, S., Malaivijitnod, S., Radhakrishna, S., et al. (2020). The human-primate interface in the New Normal: Challenges and opportunities for primatologists in the COVID-19 era and beyond. American Journal of Primatology, 82, 1–12.
Laudati, A. (2010). Ecotourism: The modern predator? Implications of gorilla tourism on local livelihoods in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 28, 726–743.
Leasor, H. C., & Macgregor, O. J. (2014). Proboscis monkey tourism: Can we make it “ecotourism”. In A. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism: A tool for conservation? (pp. 56–75). Cambridge University Press.
Lee, P. C. (2010). Sharing space: Can ethnoprimatology contribute to the survival of nonhuman primates in human-dominated globalized landscapes? American Journal of Primatology, 72, 925–931.
Lee, W., Hayakawa, T., Kiyono, M., et al. (2019). Gut microbiota composition of Japanese macaques associates with extent of human encroachment. American Journal of Primatology, 81(12), e23072.
Lenzi, C., Speiran, S., & Grasso, C. (2020). “Let me take a selfie”: Implications of social media for public perceptions of wild animals. Society and Animals, 1, 1–20.
Liu, Z.-J., Qian, X.-K., Hong, M.-H., et al. (2020). Global view on virus infection in non-human primates and implication for public health and wildlife conservation. Zoological Research, 42, 626–632. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.12.089961
MacKenzie, C. A. (2012). Trenches like fences make good neighbours: Revenue sharing around Kibale National Park, Uganda. Journal for Nature Conservation, 20, 92–100.
Maréchal, L., Semple, S., Majolo, B., et al. (2011). Impacts of tourism on anxiety and physiological stress levels in wild male Barbary macaques. Biological Conservation, 144, 2188–2193.
Maréchal, L., Semple, S., Majolo, B., & MacLarnon, A. (2016a). Assessing the effects of tourist provisioning on the health of wild Barbary macaques in Morocco. PLoS One, 11(5), e0155920.
Maréchal, L., MacLarnon, A., Majolo, B., & Semple, S. (2016b). Primates’ behavioural responses to tourists: Evidence for a trade-off between potential risks and benefits. Scientific Reports, 6, 1–1.
Maréchal, L., Levy, X., Meints, K., & Majolo, B. (2017). Experience-based human perception of facial expressions in Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). PeerJ, 5, e3413.
Marty, P. R., Beisner, B., Kaburu, S. S. K., et al. (2019). Time constraints imposed by anthropogenic environments alter social behaviour in long-tailed macaques. Animal Behaviour, 150, 157–165.
Marvin, G. (2005). Seeing, looking, watching, observing non-human animals. Society and Animals, 13, 1–13.
Matheson, M. D. (2016). Primate tourism. In A. Fuentes (Ed.), The international encyclopaedia of primatology (3rd ed., pp. 1–8). Wiley.
McKinney, T. (2014). Species-specific responses to tourist interactions by white-faced capuchins (Cebus imitator) and mantled howlers (Alouatta palliata) in a Costa Rican Wildlife Refuge. International Journal of Primatology, 35, 573–589.
McLennan, M. R., & Ganzhorn, J. U. (2017). Nutritional characteristics of wild and cultivated foods for chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in agricultural landscapes. International Journal of Primatology, 38(2), 122–150.
Medhi, R., Chetry, D., Basavdatta, C., & Bhattacharjee, P. C. (2007). Status and diversity of temple primates in Northeast India. Primate Conservation, 22, 135–138.
Melin, A. D., Janiak, M. C., Marrone, F., et al. (2020). Comparative ACE2 variation and primate COVID-19 risk. Communications Biology, 3, 1–9.
Morrow, K. S., Glanz, H., Ngakan, P. O., & Riley, E. P. (2019). Interactions with humans are jointly influenced by life history stage and social network factors and reduce group cohesion in moor macaques (Macaca maura). Scientific Reports, 9, 1–12.
Muehlenbein, M. P., & Wallis, J. (2014). Considering risks of pathogen transmission associated with primate-based tourism. In A. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism. A tool for conservation? (pp. 278–287). Cambridge University Press.
Nakamura, M., & Nishida, T. (2009). Chimpanzee tourism in relation to the viewing regulations at the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Primate Conservation, 24, 85–90.
Priston, N. E., & McLennan, M. R. (2013). Managing humans, managing macaques: Human–macaque conflict in Asia and Africa. In S. Radhakrishna, M. A. Huffman, & A. Sinha (Eds.), The macaque connection (pp. 225–250). Springer.
Riley, E. P., Shaffer, C. A., Trinidad, J. S., et al. (2021). Roadside monkeys: Anthropogenic effects on moor macaque (Macaca maura) ranging behavior in Bantimurung Bulusaraung National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia. Primates, 62, 477–489.
Rockx, B., Feldmann, F., Brining, D., et al. (2011). Comparative pathogenesis of three human and zoonotic SARS-CoV strains in cynomolgus macaques. PLoS One, 6, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0018558
Rockx, B., Kuiken, T., Herfst, S., et al. (2020). Comparative pathogenesis of COVID-19, MERS, and SARS in a nonhuman primate model. Science, 368, 1012–1015. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb7314
Ross, S. R., Vreeman, V. M., & Lonsdorf, E. V. (2011). Specific image characteristics influence attitudes about chimpanzee conservation and use as pets. PLoS One, 6(7), e22050.
Russell, C. L. (1995). The social construction of orangutans: An ecotourist experience. Society and Animals, 3, 151–170.
Russell, C. L., & Ankenman, M. J. (1996). Orangutans as photographic collectibles: Ecotourism and the commodification of nature. Tourism Recreation Research, 21, 71–78.
Russon, A. E., & Susilo, A. (2014). Orangutan tourism and conservation: 35 years’ experience. In A. E. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism. A tool for conservation? (pp. 76–97). Cambridge University Press.
Russon, A. E., & Wallis, J. (2014). Reconsidering primate tourism as a conservation tool: An introduction to the issues. In A. E. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism. A tool for conservation? (pp. 3–18). Cambridge University Press.
Sabbatini, G., Stammati, M., Tavares, M. C. H., et al. (2006). Interactions between humans and capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus) in the Parque Nacional de Brasília, Brazil. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 97, 272–283.
San Diego Zoo. (2021). Available via: https://zoo.sandiegozoo.org/pressroom/news-releases/gorilla-troop-san-diego-zoo-safari-park-test-positive-covid-19. Accessed 20 Jan 2021.
Sapolsky, R. M. (2014). Some pathogenic consequences of tourism for non-human primates. In A. E. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism. A tool for conservation? (pp. 147–155). Cambridge University Press.
Saraswat, R., Sinha, A., & Radhakrishna, S. (2015). A god becomes a pest? Human-rhesus macaque interactions in Himachal Pradesh, northern India. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 61, 435–443.
Sarmah, J., Hazarika, C. R., Berkeley, E. V., et al. (2017). Non-invasive assessment of adrenocortical function as a measure of stress in the endangered golden langur. Zoo Biology, 36, 278–283.
Sengupta, A., & Radhakrishna, S. (2020). Factors predicting provisioning of macaques by humans at tourist sites. International Journal of Primatology, 41, 471–485.
Sengupta, A., McConkey, K. R., & Radhakrishna, S. (2015). Primates, provisioning and plants: Impacts of human cultural behaviours on primate ecological functions. PLoS One, 10, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140961
Sha, J. C. M., Gumert, M. D., Lee, B. P. Y. H., et al. (2009). Status of the long-tailed macaque Macaca fascicularis in Singapore and implications for management. Biodiversity and Conservation, 18, 2909–2926.
Snyman, S. (2014). Assessment of the main factors impacting community members’ attitudes towards tourism and protected areas in six southern African countries. Koedoe, 56(2), 1–12.
Sodikoff, G. (2011). Totem and taboo reconsidered; endangered species and moral practice in Madagascar. In G. Sodikoff (Ed.), The anthropology of extinction: Essays on culture and species death (pp. 68–86). Indiana University Press.
Stazaker, K., & Mackinnon, J. (2018). Visitor perceptions of captive, endangered Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) used as photo props in Jemaa El Fna Square, Marrakech, Morocco. Anthrozoös, 31, 761–776.
Strum, S. C., & Nightingale, D. L. M. (2014). Baboon ecotourism in the larger context. In A. E. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism. A tool for conservation? (pp. 155–176). Cambridge University Press.
The Guardian. (2020). Mass monkey brawl highlights coronavirus effect on Thailand tourism. Available via: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/13/fighting-monkeys-highlight-effect-of-coronavirus-on-thailand-tourism. Accessed 14 Dec 2020.
van der Duim, R., Ampumuza, C., & Ahebwa, W. M. (2014). Gorilla tourism in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: An actor-network perspective. Society & Natural Resources, 27, 588–601.
Wallis, J., & Lee, D. R. (1999). Primate conservation: The prevention of disease transmission. International Journal of Primatology, 20, 803–826.
Waterman, J. O., Campbell, L. A., Maréchal, L., et al. (2019). Effect of human activity on habitat selection in the endangered Barbary macaque. Animal Conservation, 23, 373–385.
Waters, S., Setchell, J. M., Maréchal, L., et al. (2021). IUCN best practice guidelines for responsible images of non-human primates. IUCN Primate Specialist Group. https://human-primate-interactions.org/resources/
Weber, A. W., & Vedder, A. (1983). Population dynamics of the Virunga gorillas: 1959–1978. Biological Conservation, 26, 341–366.
Weber, A., Kalema-Zikusoka, G., & Stevens, N. J. (2020). Lack of rule-adherence during mountain gorilla tourism encounters in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, places gorillas at risk from human disease. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 1. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00001
Wheatley, B. P. (1999). The sacred monkeys of Bali. Waveland Press Inc.
Williamson, E. A., & Feistner, A. T. C. (2011). Habituating primates: Processes, techniques, variables and ethics. In J. M. Setchell & D. J. Curtis (Eds.), Field and laboratory methods in primatology (2nd ed., pp. 33–50). Cambridge University Press.
Williamson, E. A., & Macfie, E. J. (2014). Guidelines for best practice in great ape tourism. In A. E. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism. A tool for conservation? (pp. 292–310). Cambridge University Press.
Wright, P. C., Andriamihaja, B. J., King, S., et al. (2014). Lemurs and tourism in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar: Economic boom and other consequences. In A. E. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism. A tool for conservation? (pp. 123–146). Cambridge University Press.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the editors for inviting us to contribute to the present book and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments that helped us improve the chapter. We are also very grateful to the governments and communities that, over the years, have given us the opportunity to conduct research on primate tourism.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hansen, M.F., Kaburu, S.S.K., Morrow, K.S., Maréchal, L. (2023). Primate Tourism. In: McKinney, T., Waters, S., Rodrigues, M.A. (eds) Primates in Anthropogenic Landscapes. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11736-7_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11736-7_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-11735-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-11736-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)