Abstract
Acquisition of catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs) is of significant detriment to patients’ health and comfort since such infections increase hospital stay durations, health care costs, and patient morbidity. In addition, CAUTIs can perpetuate antibiotic-resistant bacterial presence, when acquired in the hospital or healthcare setting, thus causing problems after the CAUTI has been treated. The pathogenesis of CAUTIs stems from biofilm growth on an implanted urinary catheter surface and the altered bacterial phenotype. Biofilms are microorganisms that are attached to an inert and/or biotic surface and embedded in an extracellular polymeric substance (EPS). Several techniques have been developed to produce catheters that aim to delay biofilm formation and subsequently reduce biofilm growth, thus delaying the onset of CAUTI, but these have shown varying degrees of success. In this review, we discuss the etiology of CAUTIs, existing laboratory models of pathogenesis, approaches to disease prevention, and the interconnectivity among these topics.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abraham SN, Miao Y (2015) The nature of immune responses to urinary tract infections. Nat Rev Immunol 15:655–663. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri3887
Al-Qahtani M, Safan A, Jassim G, Abadla S (2019) Efficacy of anti-microbial catheters in preventing catheter associated urinary tract infections in hospitalized patients: a review on recent updates. J Infect Public Health 12:760–766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2019.09.009
Al-Qas Hanna F, Sambirska O, Iyer S et al (2013) Clinician practice and the National Healthcare Safety Network definition for the diagnosis of catheter-associated urinary tract infection. Am J Infect Control 41:1173–1177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2013.05.024
Andersen MJ, Flores-Mireles AL (2020) Urinary catheter coating modifications: the race against catheter-associated infections. Coatings 10:23. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings10010023
Ashraf MS, Gaur S, Bushen OY et al (2020) Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of urinary tract infections in post-acute and long-term care settings: a consensus statement from AMDA’s infection advisory subcommittee. J Am Med Dir Assoc 21:12–24.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2019.11.004
Badalato G, Korets R, Matulay J, Gupta M (2014) Pd13-07 delivery of upper tract chemotherapy to patients with urinary diversion: a novel approach. J Urol 191:e354–e354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.juro.2014.02.992
Banerjee I, Pangule RC, Kane RS (2011) Antifouling coatings: recent developments in the design of surfaces that prevent fouling by proteins, bacteria, and marine organisms. Adv Mater Deerfield Beach Fla 23:690–718. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201001215
Banerjee J, Ghatak PD, Roy S et al (2015) Silver-zinc redox-coupled electroceutical wound dressing disrupts bacterial biofilm. PLOS One 10:e0119531. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0119531
Barford J, Coates A (2009) The pathogenesis of catheter-associated urinary tract infection. J Infect Prev 10:50–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/1757177408098265
Barford JMT, Anson K, Hu Y, Coates ARM (2008) A model of catheter-associated urinary tract infection initiated by bacterial contamination of the catheter tip. BJU Int 102:67–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-410X.2008.07465.x
Bayoudh S, Othmane A, Bettaieb F et al (2006) Quantification of the adhesion free energy between bacteria and hydrophobic and hydrophilic substrata. Mater Sci Eng C 26:300–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2005.10.045
Bedrossian M, Barr C, Lindensmith CA et al (2017) Quantifying microorganisms at low concentrations using Digital Holographic Microscopy (DHM). J Vis Exp JoVE (129):56343. https://doi.org/10.3791/56343
Beiko DT, Knudsen BE, Watterson JD et al (2004) Urinary tract biomaterials. J Urol 171:2438–2444. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ju.0000125001.56045.6c
Belyayeva M, Jeong JM (2021) Acute pyelonephritis. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island (FL)
Bjerkan G, Witsø E, Bergh K (2009) Sonication is superior to scraping for retrieval of bacteria in biofilm on titanium and steel surfaces in vitro. Acta Orthop 80:245–250. https://doi.org/10.3109/17453670902947457
Blodgett TJ (2009) Reminder systems to reduce the duration of indwelling urinary catheters: a narrative review. Urol Nurs 29(369–378):quiz 379
Bonkat G, Braissant O, Rieken M et al (2013) Comparison of the roll-plate and sonication techniques in the diagnosis of microbial ureteral stent colonisation: results of the first prospective randomised study. World J Urol 31:579–584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-012-0963-5
Bovis M, Noimark S, Woodhams J et al (2015) Photosensitisation studies of silicone polymer doped with methylene blue and nanogold for antimicrobial applications †. RSC Adv 5:54830. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ra09045h
Butt HJ, Downing KH, Hansma PK (1990a) Imaging the membrane protein bacteriorhodopsin with the atomic force microscope. Biophys J 58:1473–1480. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3495(90)82492-9
Butt H-J, Wolff EK, Gould SAC et al (1990b) Imaging cells with the atomic force microscope. J Struct Biol 105:54–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/1047-8477(90)90098-W
Camesano TA, Natan MJ, Logan BE (2000) Observation of changes in bacterial cell morphology using tapping mode atomic force microscopy. Langmuir 16:4563–4572. https://doi.org/10.1021/la990805o
Campoccia D, Montanaro L, Arciola CR (2013) A review of the biomaterials technologies for infection-resistant surfaces. Biomaterials 34:8533–8554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.07.089
Carpenter AE, Jones TR, Lamprecht MR et al (2006) CellProfiler: image analysis software for identifying and quantifying cell phenotypes. Genome Biol 7:R100. https://doi.org/10.1186/gb-2006-7-10-r100
Chen M, Yu Q, Sun H (2013) Novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of biofilm related infections. Int J Mol Sci 14:18488–18501. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms140918488
Choong S, Whitfield H (2000) Biofilms and their role in infections in urology. BJU Int 86:935–941. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1464-410x.2000.00949.x
Chutipongtanate S, Thongboonkerd V (2010) Systematic comparisons of artificial urine formulas for in vitro cellular study. Anal Biochem 402:110–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ab.2010.03.031
Cleri DJ, Corrado ML, Seligman SJ (1980) Quantitative culture of intravenous catheters and other intravascular inserts. J Infect Dis 141:781–786. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/141.6.781
Cope M, Cevallos ME, Cadle RM et al (2009) Inappropriate treatment of catheter-associated asymptomatic bacteriuria in a tertiary care hospital. Clin Infect Dis Off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am 48:1182–1188. https://doi.org/10.1086/597403
Cortese YJ, Wagner VE, Tierney M et al (2018) Review of catheter-associated urinary tract infections and in vitro urinary tract models. J Healthc Eng 2018:2986742. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2986742
Costerton JW, Lewandowski Z, Caldwell DE et al (1995) Microbial biofilms. Annu Rev Microbiol 49:711–745. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.mi.49.100195.003431
Costerton JW, Stewart PS, Greenberg EP (1999) Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science 284:1318–1322. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.284.5418.1318
Cox AJ, Hukins DW (1989) Morphology of mineral deposits on encrusted urinary catheters investigated by scanning electron microscopy. J Urol 142:1347–1350. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5347(17)39095-x
Cox G, Sheppard CJR (2004) Practical limits of resolution in confocal and non-linear microscopy. Microsc Res Tech 63:18–22. https://doi.org/10.1002/jemt.10423
Dale JL, Cagnazzo J, Phan CQ et al (2015) Multiple roles for Enterococcus faecalis glycosyltransferases in biofilm-associated antibiotic resistance, cell envelope integrity, and conjugative transfer. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 59:4094–4105. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00344-15
Danese PN (2002) Antibiofilm approaches: prevention of catheter colonization. Chem Biol 9:873–880. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1074-5521(02)00192-8
Dave RN, Joshi HM, Venugopalan VP (2011) Novel Biocatalytic polymer-based antimicrobial coatings as potential ureteral biomaterial: preparation and in vitro performance evaluation. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55:845–853. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00477-10
Davies DG, Chakrabarty AM, Geesey GG (1993) Exopolysaccharide production in biofilms: substratum activation of alginate gene expression by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Appl Environ Microbiol 59:1181–1186
Davies DG, Parsek MR, Pearson JP et al (1998) The involvement of cell-to-cell signals in the development of a bacterial biofilm. Science 280:295–298. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.280.5361.295
Davis M (2019) When guidelines conflict: patient safety, quality of life, and CAUTI reduction in patients with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord Ser Cases 5:1–3. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41394-019-0198-4
de Beer D, Stoodley P (1995) Relation between the structure of an aerobic biofilm and transport phenomena. Water Sci Technol 32:11–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-1223(96)00002-9
Delcaru C, Alexandru I, Podgoreanu P et al (2016) Microbial biofilms in urinary tract infections and prostatitis: etiology, pathogenicity, and combating strategies. Pathogens 5:65. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens5040065
Denstedt JD, Wollin TA, Reid G (1998) Biomaterials used in urology: current issues of biocompatibility, infection, and encrustation. J Endourol 12:493–500. https://doi.org/10.1089/end.1998.12.493
Dibartola AC, Swearingen MC, Granger JF et al (2017) Biofilms in orthopedic infections: a review of laboratory methods. APMIS 125:418–428. https://doi.org/10.1111/apm.12671
Djordjevic D, Wiedmann M, McLandsborough LA (2002) Microtiter plate assay for assessment of Listeria monocytogenes biofilm formation. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:2950–2958. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.68.6.2950-2958.2002
Dokland T, Hutmacher DW, Ng MM-L, Schantz J-T (2006) Techniques in microscopy for biomedical applications. World Scientific, Singapore
Donlan RM (2001a) Biofilm formation: a clinically relevant microbiological process. Clin Infect Dis Off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am 33:1387–1392. https://doi.org/10.1086/322972
Donlan RM (2001b) Biofilms and device-associated infections. Emerg Infect Dis 7:277–281
Drekonja DM, Kuskowski MA, Wilt TJ, Johnson JR (2008) Antimicrobial urinary catheters: a systematic review. Expert Rev Med Devices 5:495–506. https://doi.org/10.1586/17434440.5.4.495
Drelich J, Chibowski E, Meng D, Terpilowski K (2011) Hydrophilic and superhydrophilic surfaces and materials. Soft Matter 7:9804–9828. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1SM05849E
Ducker WA, Senden TJ, Pashley RM (1991) Direct measurement of colloidal forces using an atomic force microscope. Nature 353:239–241. https://doi.org/10.1038/353239a0
Dufrêne YF (2000) Direct characterization of the physicochemical properties of fungal spores using functionalized AFM probes. Biophys J 78:3286–3291
Dufrêne YF (2002) Atomic force microscopy, a powerful tool in microbiology. J Bacteriol 184:5205–5213. https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.184.19.5205-5213.2002
Dufrêne YF, Barger WR, Green J-BD, Lee GU (1997) Nanometer-scale surface properties of mixed phospholipid monolayers and bilayers. Langmuir 13:4779–4784. https://doi.org/10.1021/la970221r
Dufrêne YF, Boonaert CJP, Gerin PA et al (1999) Direct probing of the surface ultrastructure and molecular interactions of dormant and germinating spores of Phanerochaete chrysosporium. J Bacteriol 181:5350–5354
Dukes C (1928) Urinary infections after excision of the rectum: their cause and prevention. Proc R Soc Med 22:259–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/003591572802200267
Dunnill CW, Page K, Aiken ZA et al (2011) Nanoparticulate silver coated-titania thin films—Photo-oxidative destruction of stearic acid under different light sources and antimicrobial effects under hospital lighting conditions. J Photochem Photobiol Chem 220:113–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2011.04.001
Elvy J, Colville A (2009) Catheter associated urinary tract infection: what is it, what causes it and how can we prevent it? J Infect Prev 10:36–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1757177408094852
Fakih MG, Krein SL, Edson B et al (2014) Engaging health care workers to prevent catheter-associated urinary tract infection and avert patient harm. Am J Infect Control 42:S223–S229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2014.03.355
Farsi HM, Mosli HA, Al-Zemaity MF et al (1995) Bacteriuria and colonization of double-pigtail ureteral stents: long-term experience with 237 patients. J Endourol 9:469–472. https://doi.org/10.1089/end.1995.9.469
Feneley RCL, Hopley IB, Wells PNT (2015) Urinary catheters: history, current status, adverse events and research agenda. J Med Eng Technol 39:459–470. https://doi.org/10.3109/03091902.2015.1085600
Flemming H-C, Wingender J (2010) The biofilm matrix. Nat Rev Microbiol 8:623–633. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2415
Flemming H-C, Neu TR, Wozniak DJ (2007) The EPS matrix: the “house of biofilm cells.”. J Bacteriol 189:7945–7947. https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.00858-07
Flores-Mireles AL, Walker JN, Caparon M, Hultgren SJ (2015) Urinary tract infections: epidemiology, mechanisms of infection and treatment options. Nat Rev Microbiol 13:269–284. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3432
Flores-Mireles A, Hreha TN, Hunstad DA (2019) Pathophysiology, treatment, and prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infection. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil 25:228–240. https://doi.org/10.1310/sci2503-228
Foley FEB (1937) A hemostatic bag catheter: a one piece latex rubber structure for control of bleeding and constant drainage following prostatic resection. J Urol 38:134–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5347(17)71935-0
Frank DN, Wilson SS, St Amand AL, Pace NR (2009) Culture-independent microbiological analysis of foley urinary catheter biofilms. PloS One 4:e7811. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007811
Frontera JA, Wang E, Phillips M et al (2020) Protocolized urine sampling is associated with reduced catheter-associated urinary tract infections: a pre- and postintervention study. Clin Infect Dis. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1152
Fünfstück R (1998) Urinary tract infections: detection, prevention, and management. Infection 26:183–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02771849
Fuqua WC, Winans SC, Greenberg EP (1994) Quorum sensing in bacteria: the LuxR-LuxI family of cell density-responsive transcriptional regulators. J Bacteriol 176:269–275
Garau J (2008) Other antimicrobials of interest in the era of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: fosfomycin, nitrofurantoin and tigecycline. Clin Microbiol Infect Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 14(Suppl 1):198–202. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2007.01852.x
Garibaldi RA, Burke JP, Dickman ML, Smith CB (1974) Factors predisposing to bacteriuria during indwelling urethral catheterization. N Engl J Med 291:215–219. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM197408012910501
Garibaldi RA, Burke JP, Britt MR et al (1980) Meatal colonization and catheter-associated bacteriuria. N Engl J Med 303:316–318. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198008073030605
Götz F (2002) Staphylococcus and biofilms. Mol Microbiol 43:1367–1378. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2958.2002.02827.x
Gould CV, Umscheid CA, Agarwal RK et al (2010) Guideline for prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infections 2009. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 31:319–326. https://doi.org/10.1086/651091
Gristina AG (1987) Biomaterial-centered infection: microbial adhesion versus tissue integration. Science 237:1588–1595. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3629258
Guiton PS, Hung CS, Hancock LE et al (2010) Enterococcal biofilm formation and virulence in an optimized murine model of foreign body-associated urinary tract infections. Infect Immun 78:4166–4175. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00711-10
Guttmann L, Frankel H (1966) The value of intermittent catheterisation in the early management of traumatic paraplegia and tetraplegia. Paraplegia 4:63–84. https://doi.org/10.1038/sc.1966.7
Ha U-S, Cho Y-H (2006) Catheter-associated urinary tract infections: new aspects of novel urinary catheters. Int J Antimicrob Agents 28:485–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2006.08.020
Habash M, Reid G (1999) Microbial biofilms: their development and significance for medical device-related infections. J Clin Pharmacol 39:887–898. https://doi.org/10.1177/00912709922008506
Hall-Stoodley L, Stoodley P, Kathju S et al (2012) Towards diagnostic guidelines for biofilm-associated infections. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 65:127–145. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-695X.2012.00968.x
Han CS, Kim S, Radadia KD et al (2017) Comparison of urinary tract infection rates associated with transurethral catheterization, suprapubic tube and clean intermittent catheterization in the postoperative setting: a network meta-analysis. J Urol 198:1353–1358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.juro.2017.07.069
Hanafy HM, Saad SM, Al-Ghorab MM (1974) Ancient Egyptian medicine: contribution to urology. Urology 4:114–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-4295(74)90124-1
Hannig C, Follo M, Hellwig E, Al-Ahmad A (2010) Visualization of adherent micro-organisms using different techniques. J Med Microbiol 59:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.015420-0
Harris LG, Tosatti S, Wieland M et al (2004) Staphylococcus aureus adhesion to titanium oxide surfaces coated with non-functionalized and peptide-functionalized poly(l-lysine)-grafted-poly(ethylene glycol) copolymers. Biomaterials 25:4135–4148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2003.11.033
Heydorn A, Nielsen AT, Hentzer M et al (2000) Quantification of biofilm structures by the novel computer program COMSTAT. Microbiol Read Engl 146(Pt 10):2395–2407. https://doi.org/10.1099/00221287-146-10-2395
Hinterdorfer P, Dufrêne YF (2006) Detection and localization of single molecular recognition events using atomic force microscopy. Nat Methods 3:347–355. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth871
Hoh JH, Lal R, John SA et al (1991) Atomic force microscopy and dissection of gap junctions. Science 253:1405–1408. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1910206
Høiby N, Bjarnsholt T, Givskov M et al (2010) Antibiotic resistance of bacterial biofilms. Int J Antimicrob Agents 35:322–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2009.12.011
Hola V, Peroutkova T, Ruzicka F (2012) Virulence factors in Proteus bacteria from biofilm communities of catheter-associated urinary tract infections. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 65:343–349. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-695X.2012.00976.x
Holling N, Dedi C, Jones CE et al (2014) Evaluation of environmental scanning electron microscopy for analysis of Proteus mirabilis crystalline biofilms in situ on urinary catheters. FEMS Microbiol Lett 355:20–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/1574-6968.12451
Hooton TM, Bradley SF, Cardenas DD et al (2010) Diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of catheter-associated urinary tract infection in adults: 2009 international clinical practice guidelines from the infectious diseases society of America. Clin Infect Dis 50:625–663. https://doi.org/10.1086/650482
Hoyle BD, Costerton JW (1991) Bacterial resistance to antibiotics: the role of biofilms. Prog Drug Res Fortschritte Arzneimittelforschung Progres Rech Pharm 37:91–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0348-7139-6_2
Ivanova K, Fernandes MM, Mendoza E, Tzanov T (2015) Enzyme multilayer coatings inhibit Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation on urinary catheters. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 99:4373–4385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-6378-7
Jacobsen SM, Shirtliff ME (2011) Proteus mirabilis biofilms and catheter-associated urinary tract infections. Virulence 2:460–465. https://doi.org/10.4161/viru.2.5.17783
Jacobsen SM, Stickler DJ, Mobley HLT, Shirtliff ME (2008) Complicated catheter-associated urinary tract infections due to Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis. Clin Microbiol Rev 21:26–59. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00019-07
Jahn P, Beutner K, Langer G (2012) Types of indwelling urinary catheters for long-term bladder drainage in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 10:CD004997. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004997.pub3
Jain M, Dogra V, Mishra B et al (2015) Knowledge and attitude of doctors and nurses regarding indication for catheterization and prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infection in a tertiary care hospital. Indian J Crit Care Med Peer-Rev Off Publ Indian Soc Crit Care Med 19:76–81. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-5229.151014
Johnson JR, Kuskowski MA, Wilt TJ (2006) Systematic review: antimicrobial urinary catheters to prevent catheter-associated urinary tract infection in hospitalized patients. Ann Intern Med 144:116–126. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-144-2-200601170-00009
Jones BV, Young R, Mahenthiralingam E, Stickler DJ (2004) Ultrastructure of Proteus mirabilis swarmer cell rafts and role of swarming in catheter-associated urinary tract infection. Infect Immun 72:3941–3950. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.72.7.3941-3950.2004
Jones BV, Mahenthiralingam E, Sabbuba NA, Stickler DJ (2005) Role of swarming in the formation of crystalline Proteus mirabilis biofilms on urinary catheters. J Med Microbiol 54:807–813. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.46123-0
Kasas S, Ikai A (1995) A method for anchoring round shaped cells for atomic force microscope imaging. Biophys J 68:1678–1680
Katsikogianni M, Missirlis YF (2004) Concise review of mechanisms of bacterial adhesion to biomaterials and of techniques used in estimating bacteria-material interactions. Eur Cell Mater 8:37–57. https://doi.org/10.22203/ecm.v008a05
Kazmierska KA, Thompson R, Morris N et al (2010) In vitro multicompartmental bladder model for assessing blockage of urinary catheters: effect of hydrogel coating on dynamics of Proteus mirabilis growth. Urology 76:515.e15–515.e20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2010.04.039
Khadri H, Alzohairy M (2010) High prevalence of Multi-Drug-Resistance (MDR) and Extended Spectrum β-Lactamases (ESBL) producing bacteria among community-acquired urinary tract … . J Bacteriol Res 1:105–110
Khawcharoenporn T, Vasoo S, Ward E, Singh K (2011) Abnormal urinalysis finding triggered antibiotic prescription for asymptomatic bacteriuria in the ED. Am J Emerg Med 29:828–830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2011.04.007
Kim S-J, Park R-Y, Kang S-M et al (2006) Pseudomonas aeruginosa alkaline protease can facilitate siderophore-mediated iron-uptake via the proteolytic cleavage of transferrins. Biol Pharm Bull 29:2295–2300. https://doi.org/10.1248/bpb.29.2295
Klemm P, Hancock V, Kvist M, Schembri MA (2007) Candidate targets for new antivirulence drugs: selected cases of bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation. Future Microbiol 2:643–653. https://doi.org/10.2217/17460913.2.6.643
Korber DR, Lawrence JR, Sutton B, Caldwell DE (1989) Effect of laminar flow velocity on the kinetics of surface recolonization by Mot(+) and Mot (-) Pseudomonas fluorescens. Microb Ecol 18:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02011692
Kranz J, Schmidt S, Wagenlehner F, Schneidewind L (2020) Catheter-associated urinary tract infections in adult patients. Dtsch Ärztebl Int 117:83–88. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2020.0083
Krein SL, Kowalski CP, Harrod M et al (2013) Barriers to reducing urinary catheter use: a qualitative assessment of a statewide initiative. JAMA Intern Med 173:881–886. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.105
Kunin CM, McCormack RC (1966) Prevention of catheter-induced urinary-tract infections by sterile closed drainage. N Engl J Med 274:1155–1161. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM196605262742101
Kunin CM, Douthitt S, Dancing J et al (1992) The association between the use of urinary catheters and morbidity and mortality among elderly patients in nursing homes. Am J Epidemiol 135:291–301. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116283
Lam TBL, Omar MI, Fisher E et al (2014) Types of indwelling urethral catheters for short-term catheterisation in hospitalised adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (9):CD004013. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004013.pub4
Lamprecht MR, Sabatini DM, Carpenter AE (2007) CellProfiler: free, versatile software for automated biological image analysis. BioTechniques 42:71–75. https://doi.org/10.2144/000112257
Lane MC, Lockatell V, Monterosso G et al (2005) Role of motility in the colonization of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli in the urinary tract. Infect Immun 73:7644–7656. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.73.11.7644-7656.2005
Lapides J, Diokno AC, Silber SJ, Lowe BS (1972) Clean, intermittent self-catheterization in the treatment of urinary tract disease. J Urol 107:458–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5347(17)61055-3
Lawrence JR, Delaquis PJ, Korber DR, Caldwell DE (1987) Behavior ofPseudomonas fluorescens within the hydrodynamic boundary layers of surface microenvironments. Microb Ecol 14:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02011566
Lederer JW, Jarvis WR, Thomas L, Ritter J (2014) Multicenter cohort study to assess the impact of a silver-alloy and hydrogel-coated urinary catheter on symptomatic catheter-associated urinary tract infections. J Wound Ostomy Continence Nurs 41:473–480. https://doi.org/10.1097/WON.0000000000000056
Lee G, Chrisey L, Colton R (1994) Direct measurement of the forces between complementary strands of DNA. Science 266:771–773. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7973628
Legeay G, Poncin-Epaillard F, Arciola CR (2006) New surfaces with hydrophilic/hydrophobic characteristics in relation to (no)bioadhesion. Int J Artif Organs 29:453–461. https://doi.org/10.1177/039139880602900416
Lewis K (2005) Persister cells and the riddle of biofilm survival. Biochem Biokhimiia 70:267–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10541-005-0111-6
Lo J, Lange D, Chew BH (2014) Ureteral stents and Foley catheters-associated urinary tract infections: the role of coatings and materials in infection prevention. Antibiotics 3:87–97. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics3010087
Lyte M, Freestone PPE, Neal CP et al (2003) Stimulation of Staphylococcus epidermidis growth and biofilm formation by catecholamine inotropes. Lancet Lond Engl 361:130–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12231-3
Ma Y, Chen M, Jones JE et al (2012) Inhibition of Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm by trimethylsilane plasma coating. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56:5923–5937. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01739-12
Macleod SM, Stickler DJ (2007) Species interactions in mixed-community crystalline biofilms on urinary catheters. J Med Microbiol 56:1549–1557. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.47395-0
Mah TF, O’Toole GA (2001) Mechanisms of biofilm resistance to antimicrobial agents. Trends Microbiol 9:34–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0966-842x(00)01913-2
Maki DG, Tambyah PA (2001) Engineering out the risk for infection with urinary catheters. Emerg Infect Dis 7:342–347
Maki DG, Weise CE, Sarafin HW (1977) A semiquantitative culture method for identifying intravenous-catheter-related infection. N Engl J Med 296:1305–1309. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM197706092962301
Mandakhalikar KD, Chua RR, Tambyah PA (2016) New technologies for prevention of catheter associated urinary tract infection. Curr Treat Options Infect Dis 8:24–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40506-016-0069-5
Mandakhalikar KD, Rahmat JN, Chiong E et al (2018) Extraction and quantification of biofilm bacteria: method optimized for urinary catheters. Sci Rep 8:8069. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-26342-3
Mathur P (2018) Prevention of healthcare-associated infections in low- and middle-income countries: the ‘bundle approach.’. Indian J Med Microbiol 36:155–162. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijmm.IJMM_18_152
McLean RJ, Whiteley M, Stickler DJ, Fuqua WC (1997) Evidence of autoinducer activity in naturally occurring biofilms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 154:259–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6968.1997.tb12653.x
Milo S, Thet NT, Liu D et al (2016) An in-situ infection detection sensor coating for urinary catheters. Biosens Bioelectron 81:166–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.02.059
Modun BJ, Cockayne A, Finch R, Williams P (1998) The Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis transferrin-binding proteins are expressed in vivo during infection. Microbiol Read Engl 144(Pt 4):1005–1012. https://doi.org/10.1099/00221287-144-4-1005
Morris NS, Stickler DJ (1998) Encrustation of indwelling urethral catheters by Proteus mirabilis biofilms growing in human urine. J Hosp Infect 39:227–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0195-6701(98)90262-6
Nickel JC, Grant SK, Costerton JW (1985) Catheter-associated bacterium: an experimental study. Urology 26:369–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-4295(85)90185-2
Nickel JC, Downey J, Costerton JW (1992) Movement of pseudomonas aeruginosa along catheter surfaces. A mechanism in pathogenesis of catheter-associated infection. Urology 39:93–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-4295(92)90053-y
Nicolle LE (2005) Catheter-related urinary tract infection. Drugs Aging 22:627–639. https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-200522080-00001
Noimark S, Dunnill CW, Wilson M, Parkin IP (2009) The role of surfaces in catheter-associated infections. Chem Soc Rev 38:3435–3448. https://doi.org/10.1039/b908260c
Nowatzki PJ, Koepsel RR, Stoodley P et al (2012) Salicylic acid-releasing polyurethane acrylate polymers as anti-biofilm urological catheter coatings. Acta Biomater 8:1869–1880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2012.01.032
O’May GA, Jacobsen SM, Stickler DJ et al (2008) Complicated urinary tract infections due to catheters. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 1–43
O’Toole GA (2011) Microtiter dish biofilm formation assay. J Vis Exp JoVE 47:2437. https://doi.org/10.3791/2437
O’Toole GA, Kolter R (1998a) Flagellar and twitching motility are necessary for Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm development. Mol Microbiol 30:295–304. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.01062.x
O’Toole GA, Kolter R (1998b) Initiation of biofilm formation in Pseudomonas fluorescens WCS365 proceeds via multiple, convergent signalling pathways: a genetic analysis. Mol Microbiol 28:449–461. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00797.x
Orsi N (2004) The antimicrobial activity of lactoferrin: current status and perspectives. Biometals Int J Role Met Ions Biol Biochem Med 17:189–196. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:biom.0000027691.86757.e2
Otero A, Palacios F, Akinfiev T, Apalkov A (2010) A low cost device for monitoring the urine output of critical care patients. Sensors 10:10714–10732. https://doi.org/10.3390/s101210714
Page K, Wilson M, Parkin I (2009) Antimicrobial surfaces and their potential in reducing the role of the inanimate environment in the incidence of hospital-acquired infections. J Mater Chem 19:3819–3831. https://doi.org/10.1039/b818698g
Pawley J (2010) Fundamental limits in confocal microscopy. Scanning, In, pp 20–42
Peel TN (2019) Studying biofilm and clinical issues in orthopedics. Front Microbiol 10:359. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00359
Pereira S, Nguyen L, Stevermer JJ (2014) PURLs: a simple way to reduce catheter-associated UTIs. J Fam Pract 63:E10–E12
Pezzlo M (1988) Detection of urinary tract infections by rapid methods. Clin Microbiol Rev 1:268–280
Pickard R, Lam T, Maclennan G et al (2012) Types of urethral catheter for reducing symptomatic urinary tract infections in hospitalised adults requiring short-term catheterisation: multicentre randomised controlled trial and economic evaluation of antimicrobial- and antiseptic-impregnated urethral catheters (the CATHETER trial). Health Technol Assess Winch Engl 16:1–197. https://doi.org/10.3310/hta16470
Platt R, Polk BF, Murdock B, Rosner B (1982) Mortality associated with nosocomial urinary-tract infection. N Engl J Med 307:637–642. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198209093071101
Podkovik S, Toor H, Gattupalli M et al (2019) Prevalence of catheter-associated urinary tract infections in neurosurgical intensive care patients – the overdiagnosis of urinary tract infections. Cureus 11:e5494. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.5494
Portillo ME, Salvadó M, Trampuz A et al (2013) Sonication versus Vortexing of implants for diagnosis of prosthetic joint infection. J Clin Microbiol 51(2):591–594
Pratt LA, Kolter R (1998) Genetic analysis of Escherichia coli biofilm formation: roles of flagella, motility, chemotaxis and type I pili. Mol Microbiol 30:285–293. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.01061.x
Press MJ, Metlay JP (2013) Catheter-associated urinary tract infection: does changing the definition change quality? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol Off J Soc Hosp Epidemiol Am 34:313–315. https://doi.org/10.1086/669525
Prüß BM, Besemann C, Denton A, Wolfe AJ (2006) A complex transcription network controls the early stages of biofilm development by Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 188:3731–3739. https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.01780-05
Radmacher M, Tillmann RW, Fritz M, Gaub HE (1992) From molecules to cells: imaging soft samples with the atomic force microscope. Science 257(5078):1900–1905
Rahmani-Badi A, Sepehr S, Mohammadi P et al (2014) A combination of cis-2-decenoic acid and antibiotics eradicates pre-established catheter-associated biofilms. J Med Microbiol 63:1509–1516. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.075374-0
Razatos A, Ong Y-L, Sharma MM, Georgiou G (1998) Molecular determinants of bacterial adhesion monitored by atomic force microscopy. Proc Natl Acad Sci 95:11059–11064. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.19.11059
Reddy ST, Chung KK, McDaniel CJ et al (2011) Micropatterned surfaces for reducing the risk of catheter-associated urinary tract infection: an in vitro study on the effect of sharklet micropatterned surfaces to inhibit bacterial colonization and migration of uropathogenic Escherichia coli. J Endourol 25:1547–1552. https://doi.org/10.1089/end.2010.0611
Reid G, Charbonneau-Smith R, Lam D et al (1992) Bacterial biofilm formation in the urinary bladder of spinal cord injured patients. Paraplegia 30:711–717. https://doi.org/10.1038/sc.1992.138
Riboli DFM, Lyra JC, Silva EP et al (2014) Diagnostic accuracy of semi-quantitative and quantitative culture techniques for the diagnosis of catheter-related infections in newborns and molecular typing of isolated microorganisms. BMC Infect Dis 14:283. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-283
Riley DK, Classen DC, Stevens LE, Burke JP (1995) A large randomized clinical trial of a silver-impregnated urinary catheter: lack of efficacy and staphylococcal superinfection. Am J Med 98:349–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(99)80313-1
Ronin D, Boyer J, Alban N et al (2021) Current and novel diagnostics for orthopedic implant biofilm infections: a review. APMIS Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand. https://doi.org/10.1111/apm.13197
Roy RK, Lee K-R (2007) Biomedical applications of diamond-like carbon coatings: a review. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 83:72–84. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.b.30768
Saint S (2000) Clinical and economic consequences of nosocomial catheter-related bacteriuria. Am J Infect Control 28:68–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0196-6553(00)90015-4
Sauer K, Camper AK (2001) Characterization of phenotypic changes in Pseudomonas putida in response to surface-associated growth. J Bacteriol 183:6579–6589. https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.183.22.6579-6589.2001
Sauer K, Camper AK, Ehrlich GD et al (2002) Pseudomonas aeruginosa displays multiple phenotypes during development as a biofilm. J Bacteriol 184:1140–1154. https://doi.org/10.1128/jb.184.4.1140-1154.2002
Schabert FA, Henn C, Engel A (1995) Native Escherichia coli OmpF porin surfaces probed by atomic force microscopy. Science 268:92–94. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7701347
Schaeffer AJ, Chmiel J (1983) Urethral meatal colonization in the pathogenesis of catheter-associated bacteriuria. J Urol 130:1096–1099. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5347(17)51701-2
Schierholz JM, Beuth J (2001) Implant infections: a haven for opportunistic bacteria. J Hosp Infect 49:87–93. https://doi.org/10.1053/jhin.2001.1052
Schierholz JM, Lucas LJ, Rump A, Pulverer G (1998) Efficacy of silver-coated medical devices. J Hosp Infect 40:257–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0195-6701(98)90301-2
Schindelin J, Arganda-Carreras I, Frise E et al (2012) Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis. Nat Methods 9:676–682. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2019
Schneider CA, Rasband WS, Eliceiri KW (2012) NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis. Nat Methods 9:671–675. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2089
Selinummi J, Seppälä J, Yli-Harja O, Puhakka JA (2005) Software for quantification of labeled bacteria from digital microscope images by automated image analysis. BioTechniques 39:859–863. https://doi.org/10.2144/000112018
Semwogerere D, Weeks ER (2005) Confocal microscopy. In: In Encyclopedia of biomaterials and biomedical engineering, biomaterials, biomedical engineering. Informa Healthcare, New York
Senturk S, Ulusoy S, Bosgelmez-Tinaz G, Yagci A (2012) Quorum sensing and virulence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa during urinary tract infections. J Infect Dev Ctries 6:501–507. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.2543
Seth JH, Haslam C, Panicker JN (2014) Ensuring patient adherence to clean intermittent self-catheterization. Patient Prefer Adherence 8:191–198. https://doi.org/10.2147/PPA.S49060
Shiga H, Yamane Y, Ito E et al (2000) Mechanical properties of membrane surface of cultured astrocyte revealed by atomic force microscopy. Jpn J Appl Phys 39:3711–3716. https://doi.org/10.1143/JJAP.39.3711
Sievert DM, Ricks P, Edwards JR et al (2013) Antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infections summary of data reported to the national healthcare safety network at the centers for disease control and prevention, 2009–2010. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 34:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1086/668770
Singh PK, Parsek MR, Greenberg EP, Welsh MJ (2002) A component of innate immunity prevents bacterial biofilm development. Nature 417:552–555. https://doi.org/10.1038/417552a
Slobbe L, el Barzouhi A, Boersma E, Rijnders BJA (2009) Comparison of the roll plate method to the sonication method to diagnose catheter colonization and bacteremia in patients with long-term tunnelled catheters: a randomized prospective study. J Clin Microbiol 47:885–888. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00998-08
Soto SM, Smithson A, Horcajada JP et al (2006) Implication of biofilm formation in the persistence of urinary tract infection caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli. Clin Microbiol Infect Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 12:1034–1036. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01543.x
Staudt C, Horn H, Hempel DC, Neu TR (2004) Volumetric measurements of bacterial cells and extracellular polymeric substance glycoconjugates in biofilms. Biotechnol Bioeng 88:585–592. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.20241
Stewart PS (2003) New ways to stop biofilm infections. Lancet Lond Engl 361:97. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12245-3
Stickler DJ (2014) Clinical complications of urinary catheters caused by crystalline biofilms: something needs to be done. J Intern Med 276:120–129. https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12220
Subramanian P, Shanmugam N, Sivaraman U et al (2012) Antiobiotic resistance pattern of biofilm-forming uropathogens isolated from catheterised patients in Pondicherry, India. Australas Med J 5:344–348. https://doi.org/10.4066/AMJ.2012.1193
Summers JG (2019) The development and validation of a standard in vitro method to evaluate the efficacy of surface modified urinary catheters. Thesis, Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Engineering
Summers J, Goeres DM (2019) Catheter-associated urinary tract infections: development of a test method for assessing the efficacy of antimicrobial technologies/products. In: Williams DL (ed) Targeting biofilms in translational research, device development, and industrial sectors. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 29–53
Sutrave S, Kikhney J, Schmidt J et al (2019) Effect of daptomycin and vancomycin on Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms: An in vitro assessment using fluorescence in situ hybridization. PloS One 14:e0221786. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221786
Tambyah PA, Maki DG (2000) Catheter-associated urinary tract infection is rarely symptomatic: a prospective study of 1,497 catheterized patients. Arch Intern Med 160:678–682. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.160.5.678
Tambyah PA, Halvorson KT, Maki DG (1999) A prospective study of pathogenesis of catheter-associated urinary tract infections. Mayo Clin Proc 74:131–136. https://doi.org/10.4065/74.2.131
Tarkkanen AM, Allen BL, Williams PH et al (1992) Fimbriation, capsulation, and iron-scavenging systems of Klebsiella strains associated with human urinary tract infection. Infect Immun 60:1187–1192. https://doi.org/10.1128/iai.60.3.1187-1192.1992
Tran PL, Lowry N, Campbell T et al (2012) An organoselenium compound inhibits staphylococcus aureus biofilms on hemodialysis catheters in vivo. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56:972–978. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.05680-11
Trautner BW (2010) Management of Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection (CAUTI). Curr Opin Infect Dis 23:76–82. https://doi.org/10.1097/QCO.0b013e328334dda8
Trautner BW, Darouiche RO (2004) Catheter-associated infections: pathogenesis affects prevention. Arch Intern Med 164:842–850. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.164.8.842
Truong VK, Lapovok R, Estrin YS et al (2010) The influence of nano-scale surface roughness on bacterial adhesion to ultrafine-grained titanium. Biomaterials 31:3674–3683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.01.071
Vaitkus S, Simoes-Torigoe R, Wong N et al (2021) A comparative study of experimental urinary catheters containing silver and zinc for biofilm inhibition. J Biomater Appl 35:1071–1081. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885328221989553
Vaterrodt A, Thallinger B, Daumann K et al (2016) Antifouling and antibacterial multifunctional polyzwitterion/enzyme coating on silicone catheter material prepared by electrostatic layer-by-layer assembly. Langmuir ACS J Surf Colloids 32:1347–1359. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b04303
Vejborg RM, Klemm P (2008) Blocking of bacterial biofilm formation by a fish protein coating. Appl Environ Microbiol 74:3551–3558. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00279-08
Wadhera A, Fung M (2005) Systemic argyria associated with ingestion of colloidal silver. Dermatol Online J 11:12
Wald HL, Epstein AM, Radcliff TA, Kramer AM (2008) Extended use of urinary catheters in older surgical patients: a patient safety problem? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29:116–124. https://doi.org/10.1086/526433
Walker JN, Flores-Mireles AL, Pinkner CL et al (2017) Catheterization alters bladder ecology to potentiate Staphylococcus aureus infection of the urinary tract. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114:E8721–E8730. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1707572114
Wang L, Zhang S, Keatch R et al (2019) In-vitro antibacterial and anti-encrustation performance of silver-polytetrafluoroethylene nanocomposite coated urinary catheters. J Hosp Infect 103:55–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2019.02.012
Wei Tan C, Chlebicki MP (2016) Urinary tract infections in adults. Singapore Med J 57:485–490. https://doi.org/10.11622/smedj.2016153
White JG, Amos WB, Fordham M (1987) An evaluation of confocal versus conventional imaging of biological structures by fluorescence light microscopy. J Cell Biol 105:41–48. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.105.1.41
Wilson ML, Gaido L (2004) Laboratory diagnosis of urinary tract infections in adult patients. Clin Infect Dis 38(8):1150–1158. https://doi.org/10.1086/383029
Wiwanitkit V, Udomsantisuk N, Boonchalermvichian C (2005) Diagnostic value and cost utility analysis for urine Gram stain and urine microscopic examination as screening tests for urinary tract infection. Urol Res 33:220–222. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-004-0457-z
Wong SS, Joselevich E, Woolley AT et al (1998) Covalently functionalized nanotubes as nanometre-sized probes in chemistry and biology. Nature 394:52–55. https://doi.org/10.1038/27873
Wright KJ, Seed PC, Hultgren SJ (2005) Uropathogenic Escherichia coli flagella aid in efficient urinary tract colonization. Infect Immun 73:7657–7668. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.73.11.7657-7668.2005
Xavier JB, White DC, Almeida JS (2003) Automated biofilm morphology quantification from confocal laser scanning microscopy imaging. Water Sci Technol 47:31–37. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2003.0273
Xu Y, Moser C, Al-Soud WA et al (2012) Culture-dependent and -independent investigations of microbial diversity on urinary catheters. J Clin Microbiol 50:3901–3908. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01237-12
Yang X, Beyenal H, Harkin G, Lewandowski Z (2000) Quantifying biofilm structure using image analysis. J Microbiol Methods 39:109–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-7012(99)00097-4
Yu K, Lo JCY, Yan M et al (2017) Anti-adhesive antimicrobial peptide coating prevents catheter associated infection in a mouse urinary infection model. Biomaterials 116:69–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.11.047
Zhang T, Fang HHP (2001) Quantification of extracellular polymeric substances in biofilms by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Biotechnol 23(5):405–409
Zumstein V, Betschart P, Albrich WC et al (2017) Biofilm formation on ureteral stents - Incidence, clinical impact, and prevention. Swiss Med Wkly 147:w14408. https://doi.org/10.4414/smw.2017.14408
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank The McNair’s Scholars Program at the University of Maryland for summer research funding for Ryan Felix in addition to the Department of Civil and Environmental that provided startup funding for Dr. Birthe V. Kjellerup.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Ethics declarations
The authors all declare that they do not have any conflicts of interest.
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ronin, D. et al. (2022). Prevention of Biofilms in Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections (CAUTIs): A Review. In: Richter, K., Kragh, K.N. (eds) Antibiofilm Strategies. Springer Series on Biofilms, vol 11. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10992-8_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10992-8_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-10991-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-10992-8
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)