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The Chios Massacre (1822) and Chiot Emigration: A Coerced Diaspora

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Abstract

This chapter explores the 1822 Chios Massacre, where 100,000 Chiots were killed, enslaved or displaced, and the subsequent coerced diaspora it produced. Scholars of the Greek War of Independence have previously acknowledged that the massacre was a pivotal moment in the war, although few have elaborated significantly on its long-term outcomes. This chapter focusses on the large Chiot diaspora that fled the massacre to the ports of Europe, with the London community being the central case study. To explore this topic, firstly, an interrogation of the realities of the Chios Massacre is provided, with a look at comparative cases, such as the massacres at Tripolitsa, Istanbul and Psara. The resulting Chiot diaspora is then analysed in the context of wider migration history, to ascertain the nature, features, demographics and stories of their emigration. Comparative coerced diasporas are also discussed, such as the earlier Huguenots and later Armenians. Finally, discussion of Chiot settlement and community building, as well as their lasting legacies and the memory of the massacre, places their stories into the wider tapestry of emigration narratives.

This chapter is adapted from a presentation given online by Yianni Cartledge to the Greek Orthodox Community of Melbourne and Victoria on 22 July 2021. Many thanks again to the GCOMV, and, especially, Nick Dallas.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Philip P. Argenti (ed.), The Massacres of Chios: Described in Contemporary Diplomatic Reports, The Bodley Head, London, 1932, xxiii-xxiv.

  2. 2.

    Helen Long, Greek Fire: The Massacres of Chios, Abson Books, Abson, Wick, Bristol, 1992, 81.

  3. 3.

    Yianni John Charles Cartledge, ‘The Chios Massacre (1822) and early British Christian-humanitarianism’, Historical Research, 93(259), February 2020, 52–72, at 57–8.

  4. 4.

    Dr. Alexander M. Vlasto, XIAKA or “The History of the Island of Chios from the Earliest Times down to its Destruction by the Turks in 1822”, original 1840, A. P. Ralli (trans.), privately printed by J. Davy & Sons, London, 1913, 164.

  5. 5.

    ‘Massacre at Scio’, Times, issue 11,604, London, 6 July 1822.; ‘Massacre at Scio’, Bell’s Weekly Messenger, London, 8 July 1822, 5.; ‘Massacre at Scio’, The Scotsman, Midlothian, Scotland, 13 July 1822, 2.; ‘Massacre at Scio’, Bombay Gazette, Maharashtra, India, 20 November 1822, 9.; ‘Massacre at Scio’, Evening Mail, London, 8 July 1822, 3.; ‘Massacre at Scio’, Saunder’s News-Letter, Dublin, 10 July 1822, 1.; ‘Massacre at Scio’, Government Gazette, Tamil Nadu, India, 19 December 1822, 5.

  6. 6.

    Eric Richards, The Genesis of International Mass Migration: The British Case, 1750–1900, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2018, 4.

  7. 7.

    Ibid., 4–5.

  8. 8.

    Thomas W. Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1768 to 1913: The Long Nineteenth Century, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2015, 74.

  9. 9.

    Vlasto, XIAKA, 145.

  10. 10.

    Long, Greek Fire, 61 & 67–8.

  11. 11.

    Argenti, The Massacres of Chios, xx-xxi.; Charles A. Frazee, ‘The Greek Catholic Islanders and the Revolution of 1821’, Eastern European Quarterly, 13(3), 1979, 315–26, at 321.

  12. 12.

    Long, Greek Fire, 90.

  13. 13.

    W. W. T., ‘The Fall of Scio’, Morning Advertiser, London, 17 October 1822, 3.

  14. 14.

    Thomas W. Gallant, Modern Greece, Arnold, London, 2001, 20.

  15. 15.

    Davide Rodogno, Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in the Ottoman Empire 1815–1914, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2011, 66–7.

  16. 16.

    H. Şükrü Ilıcak, ‘The Revolt of Alexandros Ipsilantis and the Fate of the Fanariots in Ottoman Documents’, in Petros Pizanias (ed.), The Greek Revolution of 1821: A European Event, The Isis Press, Istanbul, 2011, 225–39, at 236.

  17. 17.

    Rodogno, Against Massacre, 65.

  18. 18.

    David Brewer, The Flame of Freedom: The Greek War of Independence, 1821–1833, John Murray, London, 2001, 111–23.

  19. 19.

    Christopher Montague Woodhouse, The Greek War of Independence: Its Historical Setting, Russell & Russell, New York, 1975, 77–8 & 87–8.; Cartledge, ‘The Chios Massacre (1822) and early British Christian-humanitarianism’, 56.

  20. 20.

    See: Niccolo Fattori, Migration and Community in the Early Modern Mediterranean: The Greeks of Ancona, 1510–1595, Springer, New York, 2019.; Elena Frangakis-Syrett, ‘Commerce in the Eastern Mediterranean from the Eighteenth to the Early Twentieth Centuries: The City-Port of Izmir and its Hinterland’, International Journal of Maritime History, 10(2), December 1998, 125–54.; Jonathan Harris, ‘London’s Greek Community’, in George Kakavas (ed.), Treasured Offerings: The Legacy of the Greek Orthodox Cathedral of St Sophia, London, Byzantine & Christian Museum, Athens, 2002, 3–8.; Peter Calvocoressi, ‘From Byzantium to Eton: A Memoir of Eight Centuries’, Encounter, 57(6), 1 December 1981, 20–6, at 24–6.; Numa Denis Fustel De Coulanges, Mémoire sur l’île de Chio [Memoir on the island of Chios], Paris, 1856, 515 & 642.

  21. 21.

    Timotheos Catsiyannis, The Greek Community of London, self-published, London, 1993, 44.

  22. 22.

    Katerina Galani, British Shipping in the Mediterranean during the Napoleonic Wars: The Untold Story of a Successful Adaptation, BRILL, Leiden, The Netherlands, 2017, 244–5.; Despina Vlami & Ikaros Mandouvalos, ‘Entrepreneurial forms and processed inside a multiethnic pre-capitalist environment: Greek and British enterprises in the Levant (1740s–1820s)’, Business History, 55(1), 1 January 2013, 98–118.

  23. 23.

    Mihail Dimitri Sturdza, Dictionnaire Historique et Généalogique des Grandes Familles de Grèce, d’Albanie et de Constantinople [Historical and Genealogical Dictionary of the Great Families of Greece, Albania and Cosntantinople], self-published, Paris, 1983, 319–28 & 384–94.

  24. 24.

    Vlad Georgescu, ‘The Romanian Boyars in the 18th Century: Their Political Ideology’, East European Quarterly, 7(1), Spring 1973, 31–40, at 32–4.; Radu Florescu, ‘The Fanariot Regime in the Danubian Principalities’, Balkan Studies, 9(2), 1 January 1968, 301–18.

  25. 25.

    Henry A. S. Dearborn, A Memoir on the Commerce and Navigation of the Black Sea, and the Trade and Maritimes Geography of Turkey and Egypt, II, Well & Lilly, Boston, 1819, 240–6.; Long, Greek Fire, 21.

  26. 26.

    Ioanna Nikolaou Koukouni, ‘“Capitania Valisso Castrum Dicti Loci”: Settlement Patterns and Defence on Northern Chios, 9th–16th Centuries’, PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, December 2011, 145. 

    See also: Philip P. Argenti, Libro D’Oro de la Noblesse de Chio [Golden Book of the Nobles of Chios], 1, Oxford University Press, London, 1955.

  27. 27.

    Philip P. Argenti (ed.), Diplomatic Archive of Chios, 1577–1841: Volume I, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1954, xxvii-xxviii.; Vlasto, XIAKA, 121.

  28. 28.

    De Coulanges, Mémoire sur l’île de Chio, 515.

  29. 29.

    Maria Christina Chatziioannou & Gelina Harlaftis, ‘From the Levant to the City of London: Mercantile Credit in the Greek International Commercial Networks of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries’, in Cottrell, Lange & Olsson (eds.), Centres and Peripheries in Banking, Aldershot, Ashgate, Farnham, Surrey, 2007, 13–40, at 21 & 25–6.; Thomas W. Gallant, Modern Greece: From the War of Independence to the Present, 2nd edn., Bloomsbury, London, 2016, 22.

  30. 30.

    Long, Greek Fire, 114.

  31. 31.

    Peter Calvocoressi, ‘The Anglo-Chiot Diaspora’, in Greece and Great Britain During World War I: First Symposium Organized in Thessaloniki (December 15–17, 1983) by the Institute for Balkan Studies in Thessaloniki and King’s College in London, Institute for Balkan Studies, Thessaloniki, 1985, 247–57, at 247–8.

  32. 32.

    Calvocoressi, ‘From Byzantium to Eton’, 20–6.

  33. 33.

    Vlasto, XIAKA, 164–5.

  34. 34.

    George Finlay, History of the Greek Revolution, II, William Blackwood & Sons, Edinburgh & London, 1861, 49–52.

  35. 35.

    Christopher Montague Woodhouse, Modern Greece: A Short History, 4th edn., Faber & Faber, London & Boston, 1986, 134–5 & 142–3.

  36. 36.

    Apostolos Delis, Mediterranean Wooden Shipbuilding: Economy, Technology and Institutions in Syros in the Nineteenth Century, Brill, Leiden, 2016, 7.

  37. 37.

    Apostolos Delis, ‘Modern Greece’s first industry? The shipbuilding center of sailing merchant marine of Syros, 1830–70’, European Review of Economic History, 19(3), 2015, 255–74, at 258.

  38. 38.

    Long, Greek Fire, 117.

  39. 39.

    Delis, ‘Modern Greece’s first industry?’, 261.

  40. 40.

    Nicholas Doumanis, A History of Greece, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hampshire, 2010, 178.; Apostolos Delis, ‘A Hub of Piracy in the Aegean: Syros during the Greek War of Independence’, in Harlaftis, Dimitropoulos & Starkey (eds.), Corsairs and Pirates in the Eastern Mediterranean, Fifteenth-Nineteenth Centuries, Sylvia Ioannou Foundation, Athens, 2016, 41–54, at 53–4.

  41. 41.

    Christopher Long, ‘Family Group Sheet—Leonidas ‘Leoni’ (Pandély) Argenti’, christopherlong.co.uk, 15 September 2007 (last modified), accessed 26.04.2021: http://www.christopherlong.co.uk/gen/vourogen/fg01/fg01_120.html.

    See also: Stanley Chapman, Merchant Enterprise in Britain: From the Industrial Revolution to World War I, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992, 154–5.; Calvocoressi, ‘From Byzantium to Eton’, 24.

  42. 42.

    Maurizio Isabella & Konstantina Zanou, ‘The Sea, its People and their Ideas in the Long Nineteenth Century’, in Maurizio Isabella & Konstantina Zanou (eds.), Mediterranean Diasporas: Politics and Ideas in the Long 19th Century, Bloomsbury Academic, London & New York, 2016, 3–4.

  43. 43.

    Address in the behalf of the Greeks, especially those who have survived the late massacres in Scio., W. Whyte and Co., Edinburgh, 30 July 1822, 19.

  44. 44.

    ‘Massacre at Scio’, Bell’s Weekly Messenger, London, 8 July 1822, 5.

  45. 45.

    Long, Greek Fire, 88.

  46. 46.

    ‘German Papers’, Morning Chronicle, issue 16,630, London, 6 August 1822.

  47. 47.

    See: Christophorus Plato Castanis, The Greek Exile, Lippincott, Grambo, & Co., Philadelphia, 1851.

  48. 48.

    William St Clair, That Greece Might Still Be Free: The Philhellenes in the War of Independence, 2nd edn., Cambridge Open Book Publishers, Cambridge, 2008, 228–9.

  49. 49.

    Eldem Edhem, ‘Greece and the Greeks in Ottoman History and Turkish Historiography’, The Historical Review/La Revue Historique, 6, 2009, 27–40.; Antonios Chaldeos, ‘The Greek community in Tunis between 1803 and 1881: Aspects of its demographics and its role in the local economic and political context’, The Journal of North African Studies, 24(6), 2019, 887–95, at 892–4.

  50. 50.

    Long, Greek Fire, 126–8.

  51. 51.

    Christopher Long, ‘Greek Migration: Phanariot & Chian Families’, talk given to The London Hellenic Society at the Hellenic Centre in London, 19 May 2005.; Harris, ‘London’s Greek Community’, 6–7.

  52. 52.

    Census of Great Britain, 1861, ‘General Report’, III, London, 1863, 39–40 & 163.; Census of Great Britain, 1851, ‘Comprising an Account of the Numbers and Distribution of the People’, London, 1854, 77.

  53. 53.

    Catsiyannis, The Greek Community of London, 31–2.

  54. 54.

    Harris, ‘London’s Greek Community’, 5.

  55. 55.

    Long, Greek Fire, 130–1.

  56. 56.

    ‘Foreign Office, Jan, 26’, Globe, London, 27 January 1836, 4.

  57. 57.

    Zetta Theodoropoulou-Polychroniadis, ‘The Hellenic Enclosure of the South Metropolitan (West Norwood) Cemetery’, in Kakavas (ed.), Treasured Offerings, 9–20, at 9.

  58. 58.

    Theodoropoulou-Polychroniadis, ‘The Hellenic Enclosure of the South Metropolitan (West Norwood) Cemetery’, 10.

  59. 59.

    Timotheos Catsiyannis, Pandias Stephen Rallis, 1793–1865: The Founder of the Greek Community in London, self-published, London, 1986, 68–75.

  60. 60.

    Theodoropoulou-Polychroniadis, ‘The Hellenic Enclosure of the South Metropolitan (West Norwood) Cemetery’, 15–6.

  61. 61.

    Catsiyannis, Pandias Stephen Rallis, 1793–1865, 102–10.

  62. 62.

    Yorkshire Gazette, York, 28 July 1849, 4. 

    See also: Royal Cornwall Gazette, Truro, Cornwall, 3 November 1848, 4.; Hampshire Telegraph, Portsmouth, Hampshire, 11 November 1848, 8.; Oxford University and City Herald, Oxford, 11 November 1848, 4.

  63. 63.

    Theodore E. Dowling & Edwin W. Fletcher, Hellenism in England, John (Joannes) Gennadius (inro.), Faith Press, London, 1915, 98–101.

  64. 64.

    Bishop Theodoritos of Nazianzos, ‘History of the Greek Cathedral of Saint Sophia in London’, in Kakavas (ed.), Treasured Offerings, 21–6, at 25–6.

  65. 65.

    ‘Hellenic Festival in Celebration of the Greek Revolution’, Northern Star, Leeds, 28 October 1843, 7.; ‘Entertainment to General Kalergi’, The London Illustrated News, 28 November 1846, 347–8.

  66. 66.

    Geoffrey Treasure, The Huguenots, Yale University Press, New Haven & London, 2013, 174.

  67. 67.

    Ibid., 359–68.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., 370.

  69. 69.

    Evridiki Sifneos, ‘“Cosmopolitanism” as a Feature of the Greek Commercial Diaspora’, History and Anthropology, 16(1), March 2005, 97–111, at 101.; See also: Margrit Schulte Beerbühl, ‘The Risk of Bankruptcy among German Merchants in Eighteenth-century England’, in Gratzer & Stiefel (eds.), History of Insolvency and Bankruptcy: From an International Perspective, Södertörn högskola, Huddinge, Sweden, 2008, 61–81, at 61–4.

  70. 70.

    Jonathan Harris, ‘Silent Minority: The Greek Community of Eighteenth-Century London’, in Dimitris Tziovas (ed.), Greek Diaspora and Migration since 1700: Society, Politics and Culture, Ashgate, Farnham, Surrey, 2009, 31–44, at 33.

  71. 71.

    Michel Rapoport, ‘The London French from the Belle Epoque to the End of the Inter-War Period (1880–1939)’, in Kelly & Cornick (eds.), A History of the French in London: Liberty, Equality, Opportunity, Institute of Historical Research, London, 2013, 241–79, at 270–1.

  72. 72.

    See: Irene Scouloudi (ed.), Huguenots in Britain and their French Background, 1550–1800, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1987.

  73. 73.

    See: Vahé Baladouni & Margaret Makepeace (eds.), Armenian Merchants of the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries: English East India Company Sources, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1998.

  74. 74.

    Joan George, Merchants in Exile: The Armenians in Manchester, England, 1835–1935, Gomidas Institute, Princeton & London, 2002, 22–4.

  75. 75.

    Vered Amit Talai, Armenians in London: The Management of Social Boundaries, Manchester University Press, Manchester & New York, 1989, 14.

  76. 76.

    David A. Kennedy, ‘From Madras to Surbiton: Alexander Raphael, Unbeaten Champion, 1775–1850’, Kingston History Research, 21 January 2018.

  77. 77.

    Talai, Armenians in London, 10–4.

  78. 78.

    Catsiyannis, The Greek Community of London, 53.

  79. 79.

    Census of Great Britain, 1831, ‘Abstract of the Answers and Returns’, I, London, 2 April 1833.

  80. 80.

    Christopher Long, ‘Family Group Sheet—Peter (Peter) Ralli’, christopherlong.co.uk, 10 October 2010 (last modified), accessed 26.04.2021: http://www.christopherlong.co.uk/gen/maximogen/fg03/fg03_325.html.

  81. 81.

    Ioanna Pepelasis Minoglou & Stavros Ioannides, ‘Market-Embedded Clans in Theory and History: Greek Diaspora Trading Companies in the Nineteenth Century’, Business and Economic History On-Line, 2, 2004, 1–26, at 10–2.; Calvocoressi, ‘From Byzantium to Eton’, 22. 

    See also: Michael Herzfeld, ‘Seeing Like a Village: Contesting Hegemonic Modernity in Greece’, Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 38, 2020, 43–58.

  82. 82.

    England & Wales, Civil Registration Marriage Index, 1837–1915, 8b, Liverpool District, Lancashire, 1866, 406.

  83. 83.

    Christopher Long, ‘Family Group Sheet—Sir Eustratius ‘Strati’ (Lucas) Ralli’, christopherlong.co.uk, 4 January 2008 (last modified), accessed 26.04.2021: http://www.christopherlong.co.uk/gen/vourogen/fg03/fg03_348.html. 

    Christopher Long, ‘Family Group Sheet—Dr. Michel Ernest Theodore Dimitri (Ernest) Vlasto’, christopherlong.co.uk, 30 November 2020 (last modified), accessed 26.04.2021: http://www.christopherlong.co.uk/gen/vlastogen/fg04/fg04_342.html.

  84. 84.

    Rapoport, ‘The London French from the Belle Epoque to the End of the Inter-War Period (1880–1939)’, 270–1.

  85. 85.

    Chatziioannou & Harlaftis, ‘From the Levant to the City of London’, 27.

  86. 86.

    See: Jonathan Harris, ‘The Grecian Coffee House and Political Debate in London 1688–1714’, The London Journal, 25(1), 2000, 1–13.

  87. 87.

    Gelina Harlaftis, A History of Greek-Owned Shipping: The making of an international tramp fleet, 1830 to the present day, Routledge, London & New York, 1996, 57–9.

  88. 88.

    Catsiyannis, Pandias Stephen Rallis, 1793–1865, 27–8, 34–5 & 47–8.

  89. 89.

    Katerina Vourkatioti, ‘The House of Ralli Bros (c. 1814–1961)’, in Maria Christina Chatziioannou & Gelina Harlaftis (eds.), Following the Nereids: Sea Routes and Maritime Business, 16th–20th Centuries, Kerkyra Publications, Athens, May 2006, 102. 

    See also: Leonis M. Calvocoressi, Ο Οίκος των Αδελφών Ράλλη [The House of the Ralli Brothers], P. Iatridis, Chios, 1953.

  90. 90.

    Ibid., 100–4.; Harlaftis, A History of Greek-Owned Shipping, 52–3.

  91. 91.

    ‘Whitehall, February 9, 1912’, The London Gazette, 28,579, London, 9 February 1912, 972–3.

  92. 92.

    ‘Whitehall, July 2, 1885’, The London Gazette, 25,486, London, 3 July 1885, 3060.; ‘Whitehall, December 19, 1865’, The London Gazette, 23,050, London, 19 December 1865, 6736.

  93. 93.

    See: Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire: 1875–1914, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1987.

  94. 94.

    Harlaftis, A History of Greek-Owned Shipping, 40–2.

  95. 95.

    For more on the Ralli Bros and their expansion, see: Vourkatioti, ‘The House of Ralli Bros (c. 1814–1961)’, 99–110.

  96. 96.

    G. S. Kempe, The Shropshire Sheep: with a description of Mr. Stephen S. Ralli’s Flock at Werocata, S.A., J. H. Sherring & Co., Adelaide, 1897.

  97. 97.

    See: Natalie Rothstein, ‘Huguenots in the English Silk Industry in the Eighteenth Century’, in Scouloudi (ed.), Huguenots in Britain and their French Background, 1550–1800, 125–40.

  98. 98.

    See: H. G. Roseveare, ‘David, Jacob (c. 1640–1689)’, ODNB, 23 September 2004.; Henry G. Roseveare, ‘Jacob David: A Huguenot London Merchant of the late Seventeenth Century and his Circle’, in Scouloudi (ed.), Huguenots in Britain and their French Background, 1550–1800, 72–88.

  99. 99.

    R. W. Ferrier, ‘The Armenians and the East India Company in Persia in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, The Economic History Review, 26(1), 1973, 38–62.

  100. 100.

    See: Paul Byron Norris, Ulysses in the Raj, BACSA, London, 1992, 136–88.

  101. 101.

    Gelina Harlaftis, ‘From Diaspora Traders to Shipping Tycoons: The Vagliano Bros.’, Business History Review, 81(2), Summer 2007, 237–68.

  102. 102.

    See: Robert E. Zegger, ‘Greek Independence and the London Committee’, History Today, 20(4), April 1970, 236–45.

  103. 103.

    Long, Greek Fire, 116–7.

  104. 104.

    John Mavrogordato, Modern Greece: A Chronicle and a Survey, 1800–1931, Macmillan & Co., London, 1931, 206–7.

  105. 105.

    See: Georgia Kouta, ‘The London Greek Diaspora and National Politics: The Anglo-Hellenic League and the Idea of Greece, 1913–1919’, PhD thesis, King’s College, University of London, July 2015, 27–71.

  106. 106.

    See: ‘History of the League’, The Anglo-Hellenic League, accessed 26.04.2021: https://www.anglohellenicleague.org/about-us/.

  107. 107.

    Alexander Kitroeff, The Greeks and the Making of Modern Egypt, The American University in Cairo Press, Cairo & New York, 2019, 18–9 & 48.

  108. 108.

    See: Mai Wann, ‘Chiot Shipowners in London: An Immigrant Elite’, Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, University of Warwick, Coventry, research paper no. 6, 1987.; Ioannis Theotokas & Gelina Harlaftis, Leadership in World Shipping: Greek Family Firms in International Business, Alexandra Doumas (trans.), Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hampshire & New York, 2009.

  109. 109.

    Harold Colvocoresses, ‘Captain George Musalas Colvocoresses, U. S. N.’, The Washington Historical Quarterly, 25(3), July 1934, 163–70.

  110. 110.

    See: ‘Ralli’, OED, 3rd edn., June 2008, March 2019 (updated).; B. Bowonder & Shambhu Kumar, ‘Rallis India: The Turnaround Story’, Indore Management Journal, 1(2), July–September 2009, 53–78.

  111. 111.

    See: Nikolaos K. Papagiannakis (ed.), Chios 1822–1912: From Massacre to Liberation: Selections from the Literature of the Period, The Chian Federation, New York, 2012.

  112. 112.

    For Huguenot institutions and legacies, see: Anne J. Kershen, Strangers, Aliens and Asians: Huguenots, Jews and Bangladeshis in Spitalfields 1660–2000, Routledge, London & New York, 2005, 76 & 109–14.; Ernest Carrington Ouvry, ‘Huguenot Societies and Charities, Past, Present and Future’, Proceedings of the Huguenot Society of London, XVI, Spottiswoode, Ballantyne & Co., 1937–41, 11–24.

  113. 113.

    See: Vahram Hovyan, ‘Armenian Community of Egypt’, 21st Century, 1(17), 2025, 89–95.; Susan P. Pattie, ‘Armenians in Diaspora’, in Herzig & Kurkchiyan (eds), The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity, Routledge, London & New York, 2005, 126–46, at 135.

  114. 114.

    ‘Manchester’s Armenian past’, Manchester Evening News, 7 May 2010, 12 January 2013 (updated).

  115. 115.

    See: ‘History’, Greek Orthodox Cathedral of Divine Wisdom, accessed 26.04.2021: https://www.stsophia.org.uk/index.php/en/about/history.

  116. 116.

    Nicolas Argenti, Remembering Absence: The Sense of Life in Island Greece, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, 2019, xii–xiii.

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  1. College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

    Yianni Cartledge

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  1. College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia

    Yianni Cartledge

  2. College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia

    Andrekos Varnava

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Cartledge, Y. (2022). The Chios Massacre (1822) and Chiot Emigration: A Coerced Diaspora. In: Cartledge, Y., Varnava, A. (eds) New Perspectives on the Greek War of Independence. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10849-5_10

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10849-5_10

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