Skip to main content

Child with Attention Deficit Disorder/Child with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Symptom-Based Approach to Pediatric Neurology
  • 882 Accesses

Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common disorder that affects individuals across the lifespan. In childhood, early identification and management of ADHD improves engagement with learning, school completion rates, and emotional development. Thus, it is important to have a high index of suspicion when a child or teen presents with problems with attention, externalizing behaviors, and learning. This chapter focuses on the evaluation and management of ADHD in the primary care setting for children and teens up to age 18 years. The epidemiology and etiology of ADHD are reviewed. Common modalities of presentation and co-morbidities are discussed. Using an age-based approach to management, treatment considerations are presented. Outcomes for individuals with ADHD and factors important to risk and prevention are reviewed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 89.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Visser SN, Danielson ML, Bitsko RH, Holbrook JR, Kogan MD, Ghandour RM, et al. Trends in the parent-report of health care provider-diagnosed and medicated attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: United States, 2003–2011. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2014;53(1):34–46.e2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Perou R, Bitsko RH, Blumberg SJ, Pastor P, Ghandour RM, Gfroerer JC, et al. Mental health surveillance among children—United States, 2005–2011. MMWR Suppl. 2013;62(2):1–35.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Danielson ML, Bitsko RH, Ghandour RM, Holbrook JR, Kogan MD, Blumberg SJ. Prevalence of parent-reported ADHD diagnosis and associated treatment among US children and adolescents, 2016. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2018;47(2):199–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Thapar A, Cooper M. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet. 2016;387(10024):1240–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Willcutt EG. The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics. 2012;9(3):490–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Vos T, Barber RM, Bell B, Bertozzi-Villa A, Biryukov S, Bolliger I, et al. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet. 2015;386(9995):743–800.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Hinshaw SP. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): controversy, developmental mechanisms, and multiple levels of analysis. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2018;14:291–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Faraone SV, Mick E. Molecular genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2010;33(1):159–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Faraone SV, Perlis RH, Doyle AE, Smoller JW, Goralnick JJ, Holmgren MA, et al. Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57(11):1313–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Cortese S. The neurobiology and genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): what every clinician should know. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2012;16(5):422–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Millichap JG. Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2008;121(2):e358–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Wolraich ML, Lambert W, Doffing MA, Bickman L, Simmons T, Worley K. Psychometric properties of the Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic parent rating scale in a referred population. J Pediatr Psychol. 2003;28(8):559–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Conners CK. Rating scales in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: use in assessment and treatment monitoring. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59:24–30.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Feldman HM, Reiff MI. Attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(9):838–46.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Becker SP. ADHD and sleep: recent advances and future directions. Curr Opin Psychol. 2020;34:50–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Birmaher B, Khetarpal S, Brent D, Cully M, Balach L, Kaufman J, et al. The screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(4):545–53.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB, Löwe B. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Johnson JG, Harris ES, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The patient health questionnaire for adolescents: validation of an instrument for the assessment of mental disorders among adolescent primary care patients. J Adolesc Health. 2002;30(3):196–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Lipkin PH, Okamoto J. The individuals with disabilities education act (IDEA) for children with special educational needs. Pediatrics. 2015;136(6):e1650–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Levy S, Weiss R, Sherritt L, Ziemnik R, Spalding A, Van Hook S, et al. An electronic screen for triaging adolescent substance use by risk levels. JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168(9):822–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Wolraich ML, Hagan JF, Allan C, Chan E, Davison D, Earls M, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2019;144(4):e20192528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Barbaresi WJ, Campbell L, Diekroger EA, Froehlich TE, Liu YH, O’Malley E, et al. Society for Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics clinical practice guideline for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with complex attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2020;41:S35–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Jensen PS. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56(12):1073–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. RITALIN® (methylphenidate hydrochloride) tablets, RITALIN-SR® (methylphenidate hydrochloride) extended-release tablets [Internet]. [updated 1/2019. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2019/010187s071s082,018029s041s051lbl.pdf.

  26. Adderall® CII (Dextroamphetamine Saccharate, Amphetamine Aspartate, Dextroamphetamine Sulfate and Amphetamine Sulfate Tablets) [Internet]. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/011522s043lbl.pdf.

  27. Strattera (atomoxetine hydrochloride) capsules [Internet]. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [updated 07/2010]. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2011/021411s035lbl.pdf.

  28. INTUNIV (guanfacine) extended-release tablets [Internet]. U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA) [updated 02/2013]. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2013/022037s009lbl.pdf.

  29. KAPVAY (clonidine hydrochloride) extended-release tablets [Internet]. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2010/022331s001s002lbl.pdf.

  30. Osland ST, Steeves TD, Pringsheim T. Pharmacological treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children with comorbid tic disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;6(6):CD007990.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Hirota T, Schwartz S, Correll CU. Alpha-2 agonists for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in youth: a systematic review and meta-analysis of monotherapy and add-on trials to stimulant therapy. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2014;53(2):153–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Kollins S, Greenhill L, Swanson J, Wigal S, Abikoff H, McCracken J, et al. Rationale, design, and methods of the preschool ADHD treatment study (PATS). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006;45(11):1275–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Adesman A. The ADHD medication guide© [Internet]. Cohen Children’s Medical Center Northwell Health. http://www.adhdmedicationguide.com/.

  34. Swanson JM, Elliott GR, Greenhill LL, Wigal T, Arnold LE, Vitiello B, et al. Effects of stimulant medication on growth rates across 3 years in the MTA follow-up. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(8):1015–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Ibrahim K, Donyai P. Drug holidays from ADHD medication: international experience over the past four decades. J Atten Disord. 2015;19(7):551–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Eiland LS, Bell EA, Erramouspe J. Priapism associated with the use of stimulant medications and atomoxetine for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Ann Pharmacother. 2014;48(10):1350–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Evans SW, Owens JS, Wymbs BT, Ray AR. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2018;47(2):157–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Stein DS, Blum NJ, Barbaresi WJ. Developmental and behavioral disorders through the life span. Pediatrics. 2011;128(2):364–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Fleming M, Fitton CA, Steiner MF, McLay JS, Clark D, King A, et al. Educational and health outcomes of children treated for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(7):e170691.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Ros R, Graziano PA. Social functioning in children with or at risk for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2018;47(2):213–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Graziano PA, Garcia A. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and children’s emotion dysregulation: a meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016;46:106–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Swanson JM, Arnold LE, Molina BS, Sibley MH, Hechtman LT, Hinshaw SP, et al. Young adult outcomes in the follow-up of the multimodal treatment study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: symptom persistence, source discrepancy, and height suppression. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2017;58(6):663–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Levy S, Katusic SK, Colligan RC, Weaver AL, Killian JM, Voigt RG, et al. Childhood ADHD and risk for substance dependence in adulthood: a longitudinal, population-based study. PLoS One. 2014;9(8):e105640.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Molina BS, Hinshaw SP, Arnold LE, Swanson JM, Pelham WE, Hechtman L, et al. Adolescent substance use in the multimodal treatment study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)(MTA) as a function of childhood ADHD, random assignment to childhood treatments, and subsequent medication. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013;52(3):250–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Clemow DB, Walker DJ. The potential for misuse and abuse of medications in ADHD: a review. Postgrad Med. 2014;126(5):64–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Caye A, Swanson J, Thapar A, Sibley M, Arseneault L, Hechtman L, et al. Life span studies of ADHD—conceptual challenges and predictors of persistence and outcome. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2016;18(12):111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Moffitt TE, Houts R, Asherson P, Belsky DW, Corcoran DL, Hammerle M, et al. Is adult ADHD a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder? Evidence from a four-decade longitudinal cohort study. Am J Psychiatr. 2015;172(10):967–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Owens JA. The ADHD and sleep conundrum: a review. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2005;26(4):312–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Modesto-Lowe V, Danforth JS, Brooks D. ADHD: does parenting style matter? Clin Pediatr. 2008;47(9):865–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Healey DM, Flory JD, Miller CJ, Halperin JM. Maternal positive parenting style is associated with better functioning in hyperactive/inattentive preschool children. Infant Child Dev. 2011;20(2):148–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Barbara Felt .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Levitt, K., Felt, B. (2022). Child with Attention Deficit Disorder/Child with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In: Kamat, D.M., Sivaswamy, L. (eds) Symptom-Based Approach to Pediatric Neurology . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10494-7_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10494-7_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-10493-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-10494-7

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics