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The India Case Study

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Toxin and Bioregulator Weapons

Part of the book series: Global Issues ((GLOISS))

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Abstract

This chapter examines contemporary research by Indian military and military-related and funded institutions and scientists to identify and characterise toxins and other biological substances from a broad range of indigenous Indian stinging and other poisonous plants. Contemporary scientific papers published by these researchers describe their work as being associated with potential “formulation of novel future bio-threat agents for self-defence” or alternatively of being “exploited for the development of novel multisystem targeted agents for self-defence”. Some of the toxins investigated as potential agents are highly toxic and could be lethal; others though not as toxic could still potentially be employed as “less lethal” toxin weapons. Given limited publicly available information it is not possible to assess whether these activities are consistent with India’s obligations under the BTWC and CWC.

Additional dual-use concerns relate to development or acquisition by Indian law enforcement bodies of riot control agent means of delivery capable of dispersing RCAs, potentially including those of biological origin and their synthetic analogues, over wide areas. Whilst these weapons are purportedly intended for law enforcement, it is unclear whether the use of certain weapons for such purposes would be safe and appropriate. The chapter also explores research by Indian scientists into a range of malodorants apparently with the intention of developing them for use in law enforcement crowd dispersal operations.

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Change history

  • 10 February 2023

    This book was inadvertently published without updating the following corrections:

Notes

  1. 1.

    For further information concerning organisation and product range see the Tear Smoke Unit website, http://www.tearsmoke.org/index.htm (accessed 20 January 2022).

  2. 2.

    Tear Smoke Unit, Some products. Available at http://www.tearsmoke.org/index.htm (accessed 20 January 2022).

  3. 3.

    Krishnatreyya, H. et al (2018) Capsaicin, the primary constituent of pepper sprays and its pharmacological effects on mammalian ocular tissues. European Journal of Pharmacology, 819, 114–121.

  4. 4.

    Bhaumik, S. (2010) India scientists hail ‘multi-purpose’ chillis, BBC News, 24 March; Singh, R. (2016) Army backs pepper shots, chilli grenades over pellet guns in Kashmir. Hindustan Times, 15 August; Dixit, R. (2020) DRDO develops ‘mirchi bomb’ inspired from the spicy bhut jolokia, The Week, 9 January.

  5. 5.

    However, there have been unconfirmed reports of excessive or inappropriate use of ‘limited area’ OC means of delivery by Indian law enforcement officials. If confirmed, such practice would appear to contravene relevant human rights law and standards. See for example: Kashmir Watch (2013) Stop using pepper gas in Kashmir: Amnesty to Govt. 21 March. Available at http://kashmirwatch.com/stop-using-pepper-gas-in-kashmir-amnesty-to-govt/; Global Press Journal (2013) Kashmiri Community Links Police Use of Pepper Gas on Protesters to Civilian Deaths, April. Available at https://globalpressjournal.com/asia/indian-administered_jammu_and_kashmir/kashmiri-community-links-police-use-ofpepper-gas-on-protesters-to-civilian-deaths/136; Kashmir Life (2017) Pepper Paradise. March. Available at https://kashmirlife.net/pepper-paradise-issue-no-49-vol-08-134390/.; Kashmir Reader (2018) SHRC gives police one week to submit SOP on use of pepper gas. July. Available at https://kashmirreader.com/2018/07/18/shrc-gives-police-one-week-to-submit-sop-on-use-of-pepper-gas/.

  6. 6.

    Arora, R. (2018) Herbal Technologies: Military and Civil Applications. DRDO, 18 April.

  7. 7.

    DRDO (undated) Water cannon. Available at https://www.drdo.gov.in/water-cannon.

  8. 8.

    Tear Smoke Unit (undated) Border Security Force Tekanpur Multi Barrel launcher Agni Varsha product brochure. Gwalior, India.

  9. 9.

    Ibid.

  10. 10.

    For details of the Multi-barrel launcher (MBL) “Agnivarsha”, Modified MBL “Agnivarsha”, and the Agniprahar MBL, see Central Workshop and Stores, Border Security Force, Tekanpur, Products, available at https://cenwosto.org/ShowPageContant/66/Products (accessed 5 June 2022).

  11. 11.

    AFP (2015) Indian police to use pepper-spraying drones on unruly protesters. 7th April. This was subsequently reprinted very widely. See for example: Indian police to use ‘pepper-spray drones’ on protesters, Daily Telegraph, 8th April 2015. Available at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/11521639/Indian-police-to-use-pepper-spraydrones-on-protesters.html. (Accessed 18th November 2015); Pepper spraying drones could be used on unruly crowds by Indian police, The Guardian, 8th April 2015 Available at http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/08/pepper-spraying-drones-could-be-used-on-unruly-crowds-byindian-police. (Accessed 18th November 2015).

  12. 12.

    Ibid.

  13. 13.

    Ibid.

  14. 14.

    Ibid.

  15. 15.

    Indian patent application number 2053/DEL/2009, patent number 262598, patentee: Director General, DRDO; publication date: 5 September 2014, grant date: 29 August 2014.

  16. 16.

    Ibid.

  17. 17.

    Ibid.

  18. 18.

    The Israeli manufacturer has claimed that though Skunk is a pungent foul smelling liquid that is highly effective at dispersing crowds, it is non-toxic. Since 2008, Israeli security forces have used Skunk spray devices or water cannon, commonly against Palestinian demonstrators, often in disputed circumstances. For further discussion see: Crowley, M. (2016) op. cit. pp. 45–46 & 71–72.

  19. 19.

    Ahuja, R. Smelly bomb planned to douse protests doesn’t raise a stink, Hindustan Times, 27 July 2017; Israeli-made Sewage-stinking Weapon Not Smelly Enough to Deter Indian Protesters, Haaretz, 31 July 2017; Surkes, S., Indians unfazed by Israeli-made stink bomb, Times of Israel, 30 July 2017.

  20. 20.

    Ahuja, R. (2017) op. cit.

  21. 21.

    Ibid.

  22. 22.

    Ahmad, Q., Indian Army May Use ‘Stink Bomb’ to Control Stone-pelters in Kashmir, News18.com, 7 July 2017; Makers of India’s most famous perfume develop stink bomb, Hindustan Times, 6 July 2017; Kannauj Perfumers Develop Stink Bombs To Counter Stone-Pelters In Kashmir, Indiatimes, 8 July 2017.

  23. 23.

    Makers of India’s most famous perfume develop stink bomb, Hindustan Times, 6 July 2017.

  24. 24.

    Das, S., et al. (2021) Assessment of toxicological consequences upon acute inhalation exposure to chemically improvised nonlethal riot control combinational formulation (NCF) containing oleoresin capsicum and skatole, Toxicology Research, volume 10, pp. 1129–1143, 27 October.

  25. 25.

    Das, S. et al. (2021) op. cit. p. 130.

  26. 26.

    Das, S. et al. (2021) op. cit. p. 130.

  27. 27.

    Das, S. et al. (2021) op. cit. p. 129.

  28. 28.

    Das, S. et al. (2021) op. cit. p. 129.

  29. 29.

    Das, S. et al. (2021) op. cit. p. 141.

  30. 30.

    See Crowley, M. and Dando, M. (2014) op. cit. pp. 34–38 for details of papers published from 2005 to 2014. In addition see: Yadav, S., et al. (2018) Biochemical, Oxidative, and Physiological Changes Caused by Acute Exposure of Fentanyl and Its 3 Analogs in Rodents, International Journal of Toxicology, volume 37, number 1, pp. 28–37; Yadav, S. and Bhattacharya, R. (2018) Acute Immunomodulatory Effects of Fentanyl and its Three New Analogues in Swiss Albino Mice Defence Life Science Journal, volume 3, number 1, January 2018, pp. 24–30.

  31. 31.

    Correspondence to Dr M. Crowley BNLWRP, from Dr P. Trivedi, Secretary (Performance Management) Government of India and Chairman, Indian National Authority for the Chemical Weapons Convention, 7th August 2014, cited in Crowley, M. and Dando, M. (2014) op. cit. p. 47.

  32. 32.

    CWC (2021) Decision: Understanding regarding the aerosolised use of central nervous system-acting-chemicals for law enforcement purposes. C-26/DEC.10. Conference of States Parties, 26th Session. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, The Hague.

  33. 33.

    Website of the Defence Research & Development Organisation, Ministry of Defence, Government of India, https://www.drdo.gov.in/about-drdo (accessed 5 January 2022).

  34. 34.

    Sonkar, P. et al. (2020) Characterization of immune response induced against catalytic domain of botulinum neurotoxin type E. Scientific Reports, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-70929-8.

  35. 35.

    Sehgal, P. et al. (2011) Differential toxicity profile of ricin isoforms correlates with their glycosylation levels. Toxicology, 282(1–2), 56–67.

  36. 36.

    Saxena, N. et al. (2018) Prophylactic efficacy of some chemoprotectants against abrin induced lethality. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 11(2), 169–177.

  37. 37.

    Gupta, S. M. and Kumar, K. (2016) Stinging plants: as future bio-weapon, Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine, 13(3), 217–219.

  38. 38.

    Gupta, S. M. and Kumar, K. (2016) op. cit. p. 217.

  39. 39.

    Gupta, S. M. and Kumar, K. (2016) op. cit. p. 219.

  40. 40.

    Kalita, B. et al. (2017) Diversity and Traditional Uses of Some Poisonous Plants of Arunachal Pradesh. International Journal of Advance Research and Innovative Ideas in Education, 3(1), 755–763.

  41. 41.

    Kalita, B. et al. (2017) op. cit. p. 755.

  42. 42.

    Kalita, B. et al. (2018) GC-MS analysis of phytocomponents in the methanolic extract of Gynocardia odorata R.Br.—A poisonous plant from Arunachal Himalayan Region. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 7(1), 2458–2463.

  43. 43.

    Kalita, B. et al. (2018) op. cit. p. 2460.

  44. 44.

    Wangpan, T. et al. (2019) Traditional use of plants as medicine and poison by Tagin and Galo Tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science, 9(9), 98–104. p. 98.

  45. 45.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018a) Phytochemical Analysis of Indian Stinging Plants: An Initiative Towards Development of Future Novel Biothreat Agents for Self-defence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences, 88(2), 819–825.

  46. 46.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018a) op. cit. p. 820.

  47. 47.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018a) op. cit. p. 820.

  48. 48.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018a) op. cit. p. 820.

  49. 49.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018a) op. cit. p. 822.

  50. 50.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018a) op. cit. p. 822.

  51. 51.

    Gupta, S.M. et al. (2018a) op. cit. p. 824.

  52. 52.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018a) op. cit. p. 824.

  53. 53.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018b) Himalayan Toxic Plants of Defense Importance. ACTA Scientific Medical Sciences, 2(3), 44–48.

  54. 54.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018b) op. cit. p. 44.

  55. 55.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018b) op. cit. pp. 45–46.

  56. 56.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018b) op. cit. p. 44.

  57. 57.

    Gao, X. et al. (2020) Research progress of aconitine toxicity and forensic analysis of aconitine poisoning. Forensic Science Research, 5(1), 25–31.

  58. 58.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018b) op. cit. p. 47.

  59. 59.

    Gupta, S. M. et al. (2018b) op. cit. pp. 44.

  60. 60.

    OPCW, CWC (1993) op. cit. Article X, paragraph 4.

  61. 61.

    United Nations, Confidence Building Measures, India. https://bwc-ecbm.unog.ch/state/india. Accessed 23 April 2022.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Peace Studies and International Development, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK

    Michael Crowley

  2. University of Bradford, Bradford, UK

    Malcolm R. Dando

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Crowley, M., Dando, M.R. (2022). The India Case Study. In: Toxin and Bioregulator Weapons. Global Issues. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10164-9_4

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