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Modelling the Evolution of Chemical Knowledge

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The Evolution of Chemical Knowledge

Abstract

We present chemical knowledge as a complex dynamical system emerging from the interaction of the more fundamental material, social and semiotic systems of chemistry. These three latter systems are characterised and further discussed in terms of their constitutive objects and the relations they establish.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The seeds of this philosophical stance are evident in Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz’s (1646–1716) conception of a lingua philosophica [112, 113].

  2. 2.

    See [39] for a discussion on the periodic system versus the periodic table. In short, the first is an abstract structure while the second a representation of the first.

  3. 3.

    In Chap. 1 we also discussed the chemical space, which according to the definition of system can be also regarded as a system. In this sense, the chemical space is also a system making part of the much larger material system of chemistry (see Sect. 2.2.1 for the definition of social system).

  4. 4.

    Renn talks about semiotic networks “whose nodes are real objects, material instruments, artifacts, or external representations (such as systems of symbols) and whose edges are the actions, physical transformations, or other relations by which a connection between them is established” [19] (p. 305). As Renn states, they are called semiotic networks “even though they are not limited to signs but rather include the entire material context of action” [19] (p. 305). Our semiotic system, which also entails (as will be discussed) semiotic networks, excludes the material component of Renn’s setting.

  5. 5.

    In Nicholas Rescher’s (1928–) studies on scientific progress [121], scientific growth with annual production rates (r) are identified as first rate topics, when the growth is linear, and as very important (r ∼ 1.25%), important (r ∼ 2.5%), significant (r ∼ 3.75%) and routine research topics (r > 5%), when the growth is exponential. In [4] , we found that the proto-organic regime (1800–1860) was close to “significant,” while the organic regime (1860–1980) was roughly “routine research.” A closer look at the organo-metallic regime shows that its first decade (1980–1990) was “very important” and that subsequent years (1990–2015) have been close to “routine research” (Fig. 1.3).

  6. 6.

    See previous note.

  7. 7.

    In this respect, Schummer has set up the basis for moral judgements of synthetic chemistry in a public discourse and the framework for chemists to reflect upon the moral relevance of chemical activities [130].

  8. 8.

    Interestingly, basic notions of ethics, such as responsibility ; can be modelled as directed hypergraphs (Chap. 6). In general, x is responsible for y to z, where x is a subject or agent of responsibility, y are the consequences of x’s actions (or omissions) and z is the institution to which x feels or are made obliged to justify its actions related to y [130]. Then, responsibility is modelled as two binary directed relations: x → y and x → z. As x, y and z may be subsets, the most general framework for responsibility is a model of two directed hypergraphs, {x}→{y} and {x}→{z}. Two examples of responsibility are: Carl Djerassi (1923–2015) is responsible for contraception to humanity. Or the United States Chemical Warfare Service (as an institution made of a set of people) is responsible for Napalm to humanity [131]. A further example showing the different levels of chemical responsibility is that of a synthetic chemist being responsible for her/his synthetic product or for her/his chemical knowledge to the synthetic chemistry community, to the chemistry community at large and to the society.

  9. 9.

    An issue related to current cooperation is that of bias when declaring contributions to scientific work [132].

  10. 10.

    Water contains the proto-Indo-European root ∗wed or ∗wod, making it a cognate with wet, and which is also ethymologically related with the German Wasser [135]. In contrast to English, in Spanish, for instance, the feature to highlight of this liquid is its connection with rivers, as evidenced in the Indo-European root ∗akwa [136], which via the Latin aqua leads to agua in Spanish.

  11. 11.

    Locke’ secondary qualities [27] and properties, for example of substances, come from observing the interaction of these materials with their environments. Thus, chemical properties result from the mutual interaction of substances; physical properties , from mechanical forces and electromagnetic fields acting upon substances; and biological properties from the interaction of substances with living systems [26].

  12. 12.

    Contexts are also relevant in the semiotic system as they constitute sign ensembles allowing for meaning generation. Interesting discussions on the semiotics of chemistry are found in [31, 137].

  13. 13.

    Interestingly, Hasok Chang (1967–) has made the point that epistemic objects are not only related by historical paths, but often rather by different emphasis on some particular features shared by objects in their evolution [139].

  14. 14.

    A similar enrichment of a chemical concept occurred in 1754, when Guillaume-François Rouelle (1703–1770) introduced the concept of “base” and widened that of salts. Before Rouelle, salts have meant neutral and soluble compounds. By using the concept of bases, he called salts the product of the reaction of acids and bases. In so doing, salts gathered acid, basic and neutral compounds, which could be insoluble in water [35].

  15. 15.

    When describing the social system of chemical knowledge we have discussed how robots and artificial intelligence technologies are also part of that system. Incidentally, we see here a case where something that traditionally was thought of as part of the material system, mechanical and computational devices, became so advanced that it should now be reconsidered as belonging to the social system. This is a case of a transition between two systems, and it shows that the boundaries between them may be somewhat fluid or permeable. In the other direction, the role of animals in research has also been and is still contested, and in the twentieth century, we have even seen terrible examples where human beings became objects or targets of chemical experiments.

  16. 16.

    Networks of chemical reactions giving place to new functions such as life, are also relations considered by the material system; which are currently studied under the name of systems chemistry [140].

  17. 17.

    Further information on reactions at nanoscale levels as well as their theoretical settings are found in [141].

  18. 18.

    As it burns at low temperatures avoiding to inflame the material on which it is placed. Incidentally a solution of this sort still preserves the meaning of aqua ardens in Spanish, where it is called aguardiente, which results from connecting agua and ardiente.

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  1. Mathematik in den Naturwissenschaften, Max-Planck-Institut, Leipzig, Sachsen, Germany

    Jürgen Jost & Guillermo Restrepo

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  1. Jürgen Jost
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  2. Guillermo Restrepo
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Jost, J., Restrepo, G. (2022). Modelling the Evolution of Chemical Knowledge. In: The Evolution of Chemical Knowledge. Wissenschaft und Philosophie – Science and Philosophy – Sciences et Philosophie. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10094-9_2

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