Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Suicidality Among Gender Diverse Emerging Adults in the United States

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Demography of Transgender, Nonbinary and Gender Minority Populations

  • 429 Accesses

Abstract

Gender diverse youth and emerging adults in the U.S. experience alarmingly high rates of suicidality. In this chapter we use data from the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey, the largest national sample of gender diverse individuals in the U.S., to examine variation in suicidality and correlates of suicidality among gender diverse individuals aged 18–24. Theoretically guided by the ideation-to-action suicide framework, we examine differences in socio-demographic factors, external minority stressors, gender-affirming and transition-related variables, social support, and physical/psychiatric comorbidities, across four gender identity groups: transgender men (n = 3,737), transgender women (n = 2,090), nonbinary individuals assigned male at birth (AMAB) (n = 838), and nonbinary individuals assigned female at birth (AFAB) (n = 5,099). We examine suicide ideation (lifetime and past year) and suicide attempt (lifetime and past year) among those who reported ideation. Our findings corroborate high rates of suicidality among gender diverse emerging adults, including higher rates of suicidality among respondents assigned female at birth. In multivariable models, psychiatric comorbidity is a strong independent correlate of ideation but not attempt, while external minority stressors associated with suicide capacity are strong independent correlates of attempt. We discuss both the theoretical and methodological implications of our results for future research on suicidality among the gender diverse population.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abel, E. L., & Kruger, M. L. (2005). Educational attainment and suicide rates in the United States. Psychological Reports, 97(1), 25–28. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.97.1.25-28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barbee, H., & Schrock, D. (2019). Un/gendering social selves: How Nonbinary people navigate and experience a Binarily gendered world. Sociological Forum, 34(3), 572–593. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12517

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, G. R., Scheim, A. I., Pyne, J., Travers, R., & Hammond, R. (2015). Intervenable factors associated with suicide risk in transgender persons: A respondent driven sampling study in Ontario, Canada. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 525. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1867-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bear Bergman, S., & Barker, M.-J. (2017). Non-binary activism. In C. Richards, W. P. Bouman, & M.-J. Barker (Eds.), Genderqueer and non-binary genders (pp. 31–51). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-51053-2_3

  • Beemyn, G., & Rankin, S. (2011). The lives of transgender people. Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradford, J., Reisner, S. L., Honnold, J. A., & Xavier, J. (2012). Experiences of transgender-related discrimination and implications for health: Results From the Virginia transgender health initiative study. American Journal of Public Health, 103(10), 1820–1829. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300796

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breaugh, J. A. (2003). Effect size estimation: Factors to consider and mistakes to avoid. Journal of Management, 29(1), 79–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630302900106

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bry, L. J., Mustanski, B., Garofalo, R., & Burns, M. N. (2017). Management of a concealable stigmatized identity: A qualitative study of concealment, disclosure, and role flexing among young, resilient sexual and gender minority individuals. Journal of Homosexuality, 64(6), 745–769. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2016.1236574

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Budge, S. L., Orovecz, J. J., & Thai, J. L. (2015). Trans Men’s positive emotions: The interaction of gender identity and emotion labels. The Counseling Psychologist, 43(3), 404–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000014565715

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burgwal, A., Gvianishvili, N., Hård, V., Kata, J., García Nieto, I., Orre, C., Smiley, A., Vidić, J., & Motmans, J. (2019). Health disparities between binary and non binary trans people: A community-driven survey. International Journal of Transgenderism, 20(2–3), 218–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2019.1629370

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, T. A., & Alloy, L. B. (2016). Moving toward an ideation-to-action framework in suicide research: A commentary on. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 23(1), 26–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clements-Nolle, K., Marx, R., & Katz, M. (2006). Attempted suicide among transgender persons. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(3), 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v51n03_04

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colton Meier, S. L., Fitzgerald, K. M., Pardo, S. T., & Babcock, J. (2011). The effects of hormonal gender affirmation treatment on mental health in female-to-male transsexuals. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 15(3), 281–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2011.581195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2006). Childhood gender atypicality, victimization, and ptsd among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(11), 1462–1482. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506293482

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, H. (2020). Challenging the cisgender/transgender binary: Nonbinary people and the transgender label. Gender & Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243220912256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dean, L., Meyer, I. H., Robinson, K., Sell, R. L., Sember, R., Silenzio, V. M. B., Bowen, D. J., Bradford, J., Rothblum, E., White, J., Dunn, P., Lawrence, A., Wolfe, D., & Xavier, J. (2000). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender health: Findings and concerns. Journal of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, 4(3), 102–151. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009573800168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denney, J. T., Rogers, R. G., Krueger, P. M., & Wadsworth, T. (2009). Adult suicide mortality in the united states: Marital status, family size, socioeconomic status, and differences by sex*. Social Science Quarterly, 90(5), 1167–1185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00652.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Devor, A. H. (2004). Witnessing and mirroring: A fourteen stage model of transsexual identity formation. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy, 8(1–2), 41–67. https://doi.org/10.1300/J236v08n01_05

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M., Pardo, S. T., & Butterworth, M. R. (2011). Transgender experience and identity. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (pp. 629–647). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_26

  • Downing, J. M., & Przedworski, J. M. (2018). Health of transgender adults in the U.S., 2014–2016. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 55(3), 336–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edidin, J. P., Ganim, Z., Hunter, S. J., & Karnik, N. S. (2012). The mental and physical health of homeless youth: A literature review. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 43(3), 354–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-011-0270-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, M. E., Gower, A. L., McMorris, B. J., Rider, G. N., Shea, G., & Coleman, E. (2017). Risk and protective factors in the lives of transgender/gender nonconforming adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61(4), 521–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.04.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fenaughty, J., & Harré, N. (2003). Life on the seesaw. Journal of Homosexuality, 45(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v45n01_01

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiani, C. N., & Han, H. J. (2019). Navigating identity: Experiences of binary and non-binary transgender and gender non-conforming (TGNC) adults. International Journal of Transgenderism, 20(2–3), 181–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2018.1426074

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fish, J. N., Rice, C. E., Lanza, S. T., & Russell, S. T. (2019). Is young adulthood a critical period for suicidal behavior among sexual minorities? Results from a US national sample. Prevention Science, 20(3), 353–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-018-0878-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freese, R., Ott, M. Q., Rood, B. A., Reisner, S. L., & Pantalone, D. W. (2018). Distinct coping profiles are associated with mental health differences in transgender and gender nonconforming adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(1), 136–146. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22490

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, A. E., Kuvalanka, K., & dickey, I. (2019). Transgender graduate students’ experience in higher education: A mixed-methods exploratory study. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 12(1), 38–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000074

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldblum, P., Testa, R. J., Pflum, S., Hendricks, M. L., Bradford, J., & Bongar, B. (2012). The relationship between gender-based victimization and suicide attempts in transgender people. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), 468–475. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029605

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldsmith, S. K., Pellmar, T. C., Kleinman, A. M., & Bunney, W. E. (Eds.). (2002). Reducing suicide: A national imperative. National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greytak, E. A., Kosciw, J. G., & Diaz, E. (2009). Harsh realities: The experiences of transgender youth in our nation’s schools. GLSEN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griner, S. B., Vamos, C. A., Thompson, E. L., Logan, R., Vázquez-Otero, C., & Daley, E. M. (2017). The intersection of gender identity and violence: Victimization experienced by transgender college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(23–24), 5704–5725. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517723743

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, A. H., Park, J. Y., & Russell, S. T. (2016). Transgender youth and suicidal behaviors: Applying the interpersonal psychological theory of suicide. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 20(4), 329–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2016.1207581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haas, A. P., Rodgers, P. L., & Herman, J. L. (2014). Suicide attempts among transgender and gender non-conforming adults: Findings of the national transgender discrimination survey. American Foundation for Suicide Prevention and The Williams Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hendricks, M. L., & Testa, R. J. (2012). A conceptual framework for clinical work with transgender and gender nonconforming clients: An adaptation of the minority stress model. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), 460–467. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029597

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. L., Brown, T. N. T., & Haas, A. P. (2019). Suicide thoughts and attempts among transgender adults: Findings from the 2015 U.S. transgender survey (Research That Matters). The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horwitz, A. G., Berona, J., Busby, D. R., Eisenberg, D., Zheng, K., Pistorello, J., Albucher, R., Coryell, W., Favorite, T., Walloch, J. C., & King, C. A. (2020). Variation in suicide risk among subgroups of sexual and gender minority college students. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 50(5), 1041–1053. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12637

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ivey-Stephenson, A. Z., Demissie, Z., Crosby, A. E., Stone, D. M., Gaylor, E., Wilkins, N., Lowry, R., & Brown, M. (2020). Suicidal ideation and behaviors among high school students—Youth risk behavior survey, United States, 2019. MMWR Supplements, 69(1), 47–55. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su6901a6

  • Ivey-Stephenson, A. Z., Crosby, A. E., Hoenig, J. M., Gyawali, S., Park-Lee, E., & Hedden, S. L. (2022). Suicidal thoughts and behaviors among adults aged ≥18 Years—United States, 2015–2019. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries (Washington, D.C.: 2002), 71(1), 1–19. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss7101a1

  • James, S. E., Brown, C., & Wilson, I. (2017). 2015 U.S. transgender survey: Report on the experiences of black respondents. National Center for Transgender Equality, Black Trans Advocacy, & National Black Justice Coalition.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, S. E., Herman, J. L., Rankin, S., Keisling, M., Mottet, L., & Anafi, M. (2016). The report of the 2015 U.S. transgender survey. National Center for Transgender Equality.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, S. E., & Salcedo, B. (2017). 2015 U.S. Transgender survey: Report on the experiences of Latino/a respondents. National Center for Transgender Equality and TransLatin@ Coalition.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johns, M. M., Lowry, R., Andrzejewski, J., Barrios, L. C., Demissie, Z., McManus, T., Rasberry, C. N., Robin, L., & Underwood, M. J. (2019). Transgender identity and experiences of violence victimization, substance use, suicide risk, and sexual risk behaviors among high school students—19 states and large urban school districts, 2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 68(3), 67–71. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6803a3

  • Johnson, J., Wood, A. M., Gooding, P., Taylor, P. J., & Tarrier, N. (2011). Resilience to suicidality: The buffering hypothesis. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(4), 563–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.12.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenagy, G. P., & Bostwick, W. B. (2005). Health and social service needs of transgender people in Chicago. International Journal of Transgenderism, 8(2–3), 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1300/J485v08n02_06

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, A., & Golub, S. A. (2016). Family rejection as a predictor of suicide attempts and substance misuse among transgender and gender nonconforming adults. LGBT Health, 3(3), 193–199. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2015.0111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klonsky, E. D., & May, A. M. (2014). Differentiating suicide attempters from suicide ideators: A critical frontier for suicidology research. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 44(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12068

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kosciw, J. G., Palmer, N. A., & Kull, R. M. (2015). Reflecting resiliency: Openness about sexual orientation and/or gender identity and its relationship to well-being and educational outcomes for LGBT students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 55(1), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-014-9642-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kosciw, J. G., Clark, J. G., Truong, N. L., & Zongrone, A. D. (2020). The 2019 National school climate survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer youth in our nation’s schools. GLSEN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuper, L. E., Adams, N., & Mustanski, B. S. (2018). Exploring cross-sectional predictors of suicide ideation, attempt, and risk in a large online sample of transgender and gender nonconforming youth and young adults. LGBT Health, 5(7), 391–400. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2017.0259

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuper, L., Nussbaum, R., & Mustanksi, B. (2012). Exploring the diversity of gender and sexual orientation identities in an online sample of transgender individuals. Journal of Sex Research, 49(2–3), 244–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.596954

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lick, D. J., Durso, L. E., & Johnson, K. L. (2013). Minority stress and physical health among sexual minorities. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(5), 521–548. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613497965

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, R. T., & Mustanski, B. (2012). Suicidal ideation and self-harm in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42(3), 221–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2011.10.023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombardi, E. (2009). Varieties of transgender/transsexual lives and their relationship with transphobia. Journal of Homosexuality, 56(8), 977–992. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918360903275393

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ludi, E., Ballard, E. D., Greenbaum, R., Pao, M., Bridge, J., Reynolds, W., & Horowitz, L. (2012). Suicide risk in youth with intellectual disabilities: The challenges of screening. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 33(5), 431–440. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e3182599295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lytle, M. C., Blosnich, J. R., & Kamen, C. (2016). The association of multiple identities with self-directed violence and depression among transgender individuals. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 46(5), 535–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maguen, S., & Shipherd, J. C. (2010). Suicide risk among transgender individuals. Psychology & Sexuality, 1(1), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419891003634430

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, J., Batterham, P. J., Calear, A. L., & Han, J. (2016). A systematic review of the predictions of the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior. Clinical Psychology Review, 46, 34–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.04.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mak, J., Shires, D. A., Zhang, Q., Prieto, L. R., Ahmedani, B. K., Kattari, L., Becerra-Culqui, T. A., Bradlyn, A., Flanders, W. D., Getahun, D., Giammattei, S. V., Hunkeler, E. M., Lash, T. L., Nash, R., Quinn, V. P., Robinson, B., Roblin, D., Silverberg, M. J., Slovis, J., & Goodman, M. (2020). Suicide attempts among a cohort of transgender and gender diverse people. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 59(4), 570–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.03.026

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mars, B., Heron, J., Klonsky, E. D., Moran, P., O’Connor, R. C., Tilling, K., Wilkinson, P., & Gunnell, D. (2019). What distinguishes adolescents with suicidal thoughts from those who have attempted suicide? A population-based birth cohort study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 60(1), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12878

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, E., Claes, L., Bouman, W. P., Witcomb, G. L., & Arcelus, J. (2016). Non-suicidal self-injury and suicidality in trans people: A systematic review of the literature. International Review of Psychiatry, 28(1), 58–69. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2015.1073143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathy, R. M. (2003). Transgender identity and suicidality in a nonclinical sample. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 14(4), 47–65. https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v14n04_03

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matsuno, E., & Budge, S. L. (2017). Non-binary/Genderqueer identities: A critical review of the literature. Current Sexual Health Reports, 9(3), 116–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11930-017-0111-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • May, A. M., & Klonsky, E. D. (2016). What distinguishes suicide attempters from suicide ideators? A meta-analysis of potential factors. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 23(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKay, T., Berzofsky, M., Landwehr, J., Hsieh, P., & Smith, A. (2019). Suicide etiology in youth: Differences and similarities by sexual and gender minority status. Children and Youth Services Review, 102, 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.03.039

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNeil, J., Ellis, S. J., & Eccles, F. J. R. (2017). Suicide in trans populations: A systematic review of prevalence and correlates. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4(3), 341–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meerwijk, E. L., & Sevelius, J. M. (2017). Transgender population size in the United States: A meta-regression of population-based probability samples. American Journal of Public Health, 107(2), e1–e8. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meltzer, H., Ford, T., Bebbington, P., & Vostanis, P. (2012). Children who run away from home: Risks for suicidal behavior and substance misuse. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51(5), 415–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.04.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menard, S. (2011). Standards for standardized logistic regression coefficients. Social Forces, 89(4), 1409–1428. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/89.4.1409

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2015). Resilience in the study of minority stress and health of sexual and gender minorities. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(3), 209–213. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H., Brown, T. N. T., Herman, J. L., Reisner, S. L., & Bockting, W. O. (2017). Demographic characteristics and health status of transgender adults in select US regions: Behavioral risk factor surveillance system, 2014. American Journal of Public Health, 107(4), 582–589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moody, C., & Smith, N. G. (2013). Suicide protective factors among trans adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(5), 739–752. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0099-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moody, C., Fuks, N., Peláez, S., & Smith, N. G. (2015). “Without this, I would for sure already be dead”: A qualitative inquiry regarding suicide protective factors among trans adults. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(3), 266–280. APA PsycArticles®. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000130

  • Mustanski, B., & Liu, R. T. (2013). A longitudinal study of predictors of suicide attempts among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(3), 437–448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0013-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Needham, B. L., & Austin, E. L. (2010). Sexual orientation, parental support, and health during the transition to young adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(10), 1189–1198. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9533-6

  • Nemoto, T., Bödeker, B., & Iwamoto, M. (2011). Social support, exposure to violence and transphobia, and correlates of depression among male-to-female transgender women with a history of sex work. American Journal of Public Health, 101(10), 1980–1988. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2010.197285

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. E., Hill, R., Buehler, K., Ryan, D. T., Whitton, S. W., & Mustanski, B. (2020). High burden of mental health problems, substance use, violence, and related psychosocial factors in transgender, non-binary, and gender diverse youth and young adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(2), 645–659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01533-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. E., LaSala, M. C., Bouris, A., Mustanski, B., Prado, G., Schrager, S. M., & Huebner, D. M. (2019). The influence of families on lgbtq youth health: A call to action for innovation in research and intervention development. LGBT Health, 6(4), 139–145. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2018.0157

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nock, M. K., Borges, G., Bromet, E. J., Alonso, J., Angermeyer, M., Beautrais, A., Bruffaerts, R., Chiu, W. T., de Girolamo, G., Gluzman, S., de Graaf, R., Gureje, O., Haro, J. M., Huang, Y., Karam, E., Kessler, R. C., Lepine, J. P., Levinson, D., Medina-Mora, M. E., Ono, Y., Posada-Villa, J., & Williams, D. (2008). Cross-national prevalence and risk factors for suicidal ideation, plans and attempts. British Journal of Psychiatry, 192(2), 98–105. Cambridge Core. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.040113

  • Nock, M. K., Green, J. G., Hwang, I., McLaughlin, K. A., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2013). Prevalence, correlates, and treatment of lifetime suicidal behavior among adolescents: Results from the national comorbidity survey replication adolescent supplement. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(3), 300–310. https://doi.org/10.1001/2013.jamapsychiatry.55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, J., Schrager, S. M., Belzer, M., Simons, L. K., & Clark, L. F. (2015). Baseline physiologic and psychosocial characteristics of transgender youth seeking care for gender dysphoria. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57(4), 374–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.04.027

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peitzmeier, S. M., Malik, M., Kattari, S. K., Marrow, E., Stephenson, R., Agénor, M., & Reisner, S. L. (2020). Intimate partner violence in transgender populations: Systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence and correlates. American Journal of Public Health, 110(9), e1–e14. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305774

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perez-Brumer, A., Day, J. K., Russell, S. T., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2017). Prevalence and correlates of suicidal ideation among transgender youth in california: Findings from a representative, population-based sample of high school students. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(9), 739–746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.06.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perez-Brumer, A., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Oldenburg, C. E., & Bockting, W. (2015). Individual- and structural-level risk factors for suicide attempts among transgender adults. Behavioral Medicine, 41(3), 164–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2015.1028322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pflum, S. R., Testa, R. J., Balsam, K. F., Goldblum, P. B., & Bongar, B. (2015). Social support, trans community connectedness, and mental health symptoms among transgender and gender nonconforming adults. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(3), 281–286. APA PsycArticles®. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000122

  • Price-Feeney, M., Green, A. E., & Dorison, S. (2020). Understanding the mental health of transgender and nonbinary youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 66(6), 684–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.11.314

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puckett, J. A., Horne, S. G., Surace, F., Carter, A., Noffsinger-Frazier, N., Shulman, J., Detrie, P., Ervin, A., & Mosher, C. (2017). Predictors of sexual minority youth’s reported suicide attempts and mental health. Journal of Homosexuality, 64(6), 697–715. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2016.1196999

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rankin, S., & Beemyn, G. (2012). Beyond a binary: The lives of gender-nonconforming youth. About Campus, 17(4), 2–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/abc.21086

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reisner, S. L., Biello, K., Perry, N. S., Gamarel, K. E., & Mimiaga, M. J. (2014). A compensatory model of risk and resilience applied to adolescent sexual orientation disparities in nonsuicidal self-injury and suicide attempts. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(5), 545–556. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reisner, S. L., & Hughto, J. M. W. (2019). Comparing the health of non-binary and binary transgender adults in a statewide non-probability sample. PLoS ONE, 14(8), e0221583. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221583

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reisner, S. L., Vetters, R., Leclerc, M., Zaslow, S., Wolfrum, S., Shumer, D., & Mimiaga, M. J. (2015). Mental health of transgender youth in care at an adolescent urban community health center: A matched retrospective cohort study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56(3), 274–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.10.264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riggle, E. D. B., Rostosky, S. S., McCants, L. E., & Pascale-Hague, D. (2011). The positive aspects of a transgender self-identification. Psychology & Sexuality, 2(2), 147–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2010.534490

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rimes, K. A., Goodship, N., Ussher, G., Baker, D., & West, E. (2019). Non-binary and binary transgender youth: Comparison of mental health, self-harm, suicidality, substance use and victimization experiences. International Journal of Transgenderism, 20(2–3), 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2017.1370627

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rimes, K. A., Shivakumar, S., Ussher, G., Baker, D., Rahman, Q., & West, E. (2018). Psychosocial factors associated with suicide attempts, ideation, and future risk in lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Crisis, 40(2), 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Risman, B. J., Myers, K., & Sin, R. (2018). Limitations of the neoliberal turn in gender theory. (Re)Turning to gender as a social structure. In J. W. Messerschmidt, P. Y. Martin, M. A. Messner & R. Connell (Eds.), Gender reckonings: New social theory and research. New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rood, B. A., Puckett, J. A., Pantalone, D. W., & Bradford, J. B. (2014). Predictors of suicidal ideation in a statewide sample of transgender individuals. LGBT Health, 2(3), 270–275. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2013.0048

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Royston, P., & White, I. (2011). Multiple Imputation by Chained Equations (MICE): Implementation in Stata. Journal of Statistical Software, 045(i04). https://econpapers-repec-org.proxy.lib.pdx.edu/RePEc:jss:jstsof:v:045:i04

  • Russell, D., Turner, R. J., & Joiner, T. E. (2009). Physical disability and suicidal ideation: A community-based study of risk/protective factors for suicidal thoughts. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 39(4), 440–451. https://doi.org/10.1521/suli.2009.39.4.440

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S. T., Pollitt, A. M., Li, G., & Grossman, A. H. (2018). Chosen name use is linked to reduced depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and suicidal behavior among transgender youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 63(4), 503–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.02.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S. T., & Toomey, R. B. (2013). Risk and protective factors for suicidal thoughts among sexual minority youth: Evidence from the add health study. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 17(2), 132–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2012.753398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, P. A., Freedenthal, S., & Osman, A. (2008). Assessing protection from suicidal risk: Psychometric properties of the suicide resilience inventory. Death Studies, 32(2), 142–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481180701801295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, C., Huebner, D., Diaz, R. M., & Sanchez, J. (2009). Family rejection as a predictor of negative health outcomes in white and latino lesbian, gay, and bisexual young adults. Pediatrics, 123(1), 346. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-3524

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schilt, K., & Lagos, D. (2017). The development of transgender studies in sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 43(1), 425–443. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shuster, S. M. (2016). Uncertain expertise and the limitations of clinical guidelines in transgender healthcare. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 57(3), 319–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146516660343

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spirito, A., & Esposito-Smythers, C. (2006). Attempted and completed suicide in adolescence. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2(1), 237–266. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095323

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stotzer, R. L. (2009). Violence against transgender people: A review of United States data. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14(3), 170–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.01.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strang, J. F., Anthony, L. G., Song, A., Lai, M.-C., Knauss, M., Sadikova, E., Graham, E., Zaks, Z., Wimms, H., Willing, L., Call, D., Mancilla, M., Shakin, S., Vilain, E., Kim, D.-Y., Maisashvili, T., Khawaja, A., & Kenworthy, L. (2021). In addition to stigma: Cognitive and autism-related predictors of mental health in transgender adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2021.1916940

  • Tatum, A. K., Catalpa, J., Bradford, N. J., Kovic, A., & Berg, D. R. (2020). Examining identity development and transition differences among binary transgender and genderqueer nonbinary (GQNB) individuals. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 7(4).https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000377

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, B., & Bradley-Engen, M. S. (2010). Adolescent same-sex attraction and mental health: The role of stress and support. Journal of Homosexuality, 57(2), 287–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918360903489127

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tebbe, E. A., & Moradi, B. (2016). Suicide risk in trans populations: An application of minority stress theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(5), 520–533. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terada, S., Matsumoto, Y., Sato, T., Okabe, N., Kishimoto, Y., & Uchitomi, Y. (2011). Suicidal ideation among patients with gender identity disorder. Psychiatry Research, 190(1), 159–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.04.024

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Testa, R. J., Michaels, M. S., Bliss, W., Rogers, M. L., Balsam, K. F., & Joiner, T. (2017). Suicidal ideation in transgender people: Gender minority stress and interpersonal theory factors. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(1), 125–136. APA PsycArticles®. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000234

  • Thorne, N., Witcomb, G. L., Nieder, T., Nixon, E., Yip, A., & Arcelus, J. (2019). A comparison of mental health symptomatology and levels of social support in young treatment seeking transgender individuals who identify as binary and non-binary. International Journal of Transgenderism, 20(2–3), 241–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2018.1452660

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Todd, K., Peitzmeier, S. M., Kattari, S. K., Miller-Perusse, M., Sharma, A., & Stephenson, R. (2019). Demographic and behavioral profiles of nonbinary and binary transgender youth. Transgender Health, 4(1), 254–261. https://doi.org/10.1089/trgh.2018.0068

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toomey, R. B., Syvertsen, A. K., & Shramko, M. (2018). Transgender adolescent suicide behavior. Pediatrics, 142(4), e20174218. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-4218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Travers, A. (2014). Chapter four: Transformative gender justice as a framework for normalizing gender variance among children and youth. In Supporting transgender and gender creative youth (Vol. 4, pp. 69–85). Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trujillo, M. A., Perrin, P. B., Sutter, M., Tabaac, A., & Benotsch, E. G. (2017). The buffering role of social support on the associations among discrimination, mental health, and suicidality in a transgender sample. International Journal of Transgenderism, 18(1), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2016.1247405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, K. A., & Beal, M. R. (2010). The high-risk environment of homeless young adults: Consequences for physical and sexual victimization. Violence and Victims, 1, 101–115. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.1.101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Orden, K. A., Merrill, K. A., & Joiner, T. E., Jr. (2005). Interpersonal-psychological precursors to suicidal behavior: A theory of attempted and completed suicide. Current Psychiatry Reviews, 1(2), 187–196. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573400054065541

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Cukrowicz, K. C., Braithwaite, S. R., Selby, E. A., & Joiner, T. E., Jr. (2010). The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychological Review, 117(2), 575–600. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018697

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von Hippel, P. T. (2007). 4. Regression with missing Ys: An improved strategy for analyzing multiply imputed data. Sociological Methodology, 37(1), 83–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9531.2007.00180.x

  • Warren, J. C., Smalley, K. B., & Barefoot, K. N. (2016). Psychological well-being among transgender and genderqueer individuals. International Journal of Transgenderism, 17(3–4), 114–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2016.1216344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitbeck, L. B., Chen, X., Hoyt, D. R., Tyler, K. A., & Johnson, K. D. (2004). Mental disorder, subsistence strategies, and victimization among gay, lesbian, and bisexual homeless and runaway adolescents. The Journal of Sex Research, 41(4), 329–342. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490409552240

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitton, S. W., Dyar, C., Mustanski, B., & Newcomb, M. E. (2019). Intimate partner violence experiences of sexual and gender minority adolescents and young adults assigned female at birth. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(2), 232–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684319838972

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whyte, S., Brooks, R. C., & Torgler, B. (2018). Man, woman, “other”: Factors associated with nonbinary gender identification. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47(8), 2397–2406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1307-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, L., Pearson, J., & Liu, H. (2018). Educational attainment of transgender adults: Does the timing of transgender identity milestones matter? Social Science Research, 74, 146–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2018.04.006

  • Wilkinson, L., Shifrer, D., & Pearson, J. (2021). Educational outcomes of gender-diverse youth: A national population-based study. Gender & Society, 35(5), 806–837. https://doi.org/10.1177/08912432211038689

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E. C., Chen, Y.-H., Arayasirikul, S., Wenzel, C., & Raymond, H. F. (2014). Connecting the dots: Examining transgender women’s utilization of transition-related medical care and associations with mental health, substance use, and HIV. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 92(1), 182–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-014-9921-4

  • Wolford-Clevenger, C., Frantell, K., Smith, P. N., Flores, L. Y., & Stuart, G. L. (2018). Correlates of suicide ideation and behaviors among transgender people: A systematic review guided by ideation-to-action theory. Clinical Psychology Review, 63, 93–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.06.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xavier, J., Honnold, J. A., & Bradford, J. (2007). The health, health-related needs, and lifecourse experiences of transgender Virginians. Virginia Department of Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yadegarfard, M., Ho, R., & Bahramabadian, F. (2013). Influences on loneliness, depression, sexual-risk behaviour and suicidal ideation among Thai transgender youth. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 15(6), 726–737. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2013.784362

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, Portland State University, Portland, OR, USA

    Lindsey Wilkinson

  2. Department of Sociology, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS, USA

    Jennifer Pearson

Authors
  1. Lindsey Wilkinson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jennifer Pearson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lindsey Wilkinson .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA

    Amanda K. Baumle

  2. Department of Sociology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA

    Sonny Nordmarken

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Wilkinson, L., Pearson, J. (2022). Suicidality Among Gender Diverse Emerging Adults in the United States. In: Baumle, A.K., Nordmarken, S. (eds) Demography of Transgender, Nonbinary and Gender Minority Populations. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06329-9_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06329-9_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-06328-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-06329-9

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation