Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

In Situ Geotechnical Investigations

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Advances on Testing and Experimentation in Civil Engineering

Part of the book series: Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering ((SPRTRCIENG))

Abstract

The geological environment is in continuous evolution due to natural processes that can be accelerated by anthropogenic activities. The uncertainty associated with estimating the properties of the ground has a relevant impact on the design and mainly on construction safety. Poor site investigations and savings on the budget for the ground studies have proved to be false economies, causing increased costs and time overruns on the ground design and construction projects. The extent and depth of the investigation required for any project depend on several factors, namely, the type, dimensions, and location of the construction (e.g., at the surface or underground, urban or rural), geologic and geomechanical conditions, geological hazards and the site’s features or characteristics. A comprehensive program of site investigation includes engineering geological mapping at an adequate scale, the use of indirect (geophysical techniques) and direct methods (boreholes and excavation techniques), as well as in situ tests in soils and rock masses. Although most of these methods have been created at the beginning of the twentieth century, they have evolved dramatically in the last decades to comply with the challenges of larger and complex constructions and the development of information technologies. The present chapter reviews the state of the art regarding site investigation methods, their applicability and objectives. It highlights the main achievements in the last decades and their response to increasingly demanding engineering works.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 44.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 59.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 59.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Goldsworthy, J.S., Jaksa, M.B., Kaggwa, W.S., Fenton, G.A., Griffiths, D. V, Poulos, H.G.: Cost of foundation failures due to limited site investigations. In: The International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures, pp. 2–4. Singapore (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  2. ICE: Institution of Civil Engineers: Inadequate Site Investigation. Thomas-Telford, London, England (1991)

    Google Scholar 

  3. BS 5930:2010: Code of practice for site investigations. Br. Stand. Inst. 1–192 (2010)

    Google Scholar 

  4. EN 1997-1: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design - Part 1: General rules. In: CEN, Brussels, Belgium (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  5. EN 1997-2: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design - Part 2: Ground investigation and testing. In: CEN, Brussels, Belgium (2007)

    Google Scholar 

  6. Hatheway, A.W., Kanaori, Y., Cheema, T., Griffiths, J., Promma, K.: 10th Annual Report on the International Status of Engineering Geology—Year 2004–2005; Encompassing hydrogeology, environmental geology and the applied geosciences. Eng. Geol. 81 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  7. APEGBC Professional Practice Guidelines: Site characterisation for dam foundations in BC (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  8. Matula, M., Holzer, R.: Engineering typology of rock masses. In: Proceeding of the Felsmekanik Kolloquium, Grundlagen und Andwendung der Felsmekanik, pp. 107–121, Karlsruhe, Germany (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  9. Palmstrom, A.: Rock Masses as Construction Materials. Ph.D. Thesis. Oslo University (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  10. González de Vallejo, L.I.F.M.: Geological engineering. CRC Press, Taylor‐Francis Group, Boca Raton (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  11. Look, B.G.: Handbook of Geotechnical Investigation and Design Tables, Second Edition. CRC Press (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  12. TR-01-29: Site investigations. Investigation methods and general execution programme. Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  13. Oliveira, R.: Engineering geological investigations of rock masses for civil engineering projects and mining operations. Memória LNEC 693, 1–28 (1987)

    Google Scholar 

  14. GEO-2: Hong Kong, Geoguide 2- Guide to Site Investigation. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering and Development Department, HKSAR Government (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  15. McLelland, C.: Nature of science and the scientific method. Geol. Soc. Am. 1–11 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  16. IAEG: Engineering geological maps, A guide to their preparation (Earth Sciences Series, no 15). Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. 14, 5–6 (1977)

    Google Scholar 

  17. Parry, S., Baynes, F.J., Culshaw, M.G., Eggers, M., Keaton, J.F., Lentfer, K., Novotny, J., Paul, D.: Engineering geological models: An introduction: IAEG commission 25. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 73, 689–706 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Clayton, C.R.I., Matthews, M.C., Simons, N.E.: Site Investigation. Halstead Press, New York (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  19. Matos Fernandes, M.: Analysis and design of geotechnical structures. CRC Press (2020)

    Google Scholar 

  20. de Freitas, M.H.: Future developments for ground models. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 54 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1144/qjegh2020-034

  21. BRE 322: Site Investigation for Low-Rise Building. Procurement. Building Research Establishment, UK (1987)

    Google Scholar 

  22. Hytiris, N., Stott, R., McInnes, K.: The importance of site investigation in the construction industry: A lesson to be taught to every graduate civil and structural engineer. World Trans. Eng. Technol. Educ. 12 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  23. Butler, D.K., Curro, J.R.: Crosshole seismic testing—procedures and pitfalls. Geophysics. 46 (1981)

    Google Scholar 

  24. Patel, A.: Geotechnical investigation. In: Geotechnical Investigations and Improvement of Ground Conditions. Elsevier (2019)

    Google Scholar 

  25. HGI: Caterpillar Handbook of Ripping. https://www.hgiworld.com/services/engineering/rippability-analysis/

  26. NZGS: Earthquake geotechnical engineering practice. Module 2: Geotechnical investigations for earthquake engineering. New Zealand Geotechnical Society Inc and Ministry of Business Innovation & Employment (MBIE) (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  27. Hunt, R.E.: Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Handbook. CRC Press (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  28. BDA: Manual for rotary drilling. British Drilling Association, London (2021)

    Google Scholar 

  29. Danson, E. (ed): Geotechnical and Geophysical Investigations for Offshore and Nearshore Developments. In: Technical Committee 1, International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering ISSMGE, p. 101. Technical Committee 1, International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  30. Dean, E.T.R.: Offshore geotechnical engineering Principles and practice. Thomas Telford (2010)

    Google Scholar 

  31. Robertson, P.K.: Guide to In-situ Testing. Gregg Drilling & Testing Inc. (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  32. Robertson, P.K.: Interpretation of In-situ Tests—Some Insights. Proc. Fourth Int. Conf. Site Charact. 1–22 (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  33. Mayne, P.W., Barry, R.C., DeJong, J.: Subsurface Investigations (Geotechnical Site Characterization). F. Hydrogeol. (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  34. Mayne, P.W.: Quandary in geomaterial characterisation : New versus the old. Shaking Found. Geo-engineering Educ. 15–26 (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  35. Wroth, C.P.: The interpretation of in situ soil tests. Geotechnique 34, 449–489 (1984)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Rogers, J.D.: Subsurface exploration using the standard penetration test and the cone penetrometer test. Environ. Eng. Geosci. 12, 161–179 (2006)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. BS 1377-9:1990: Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes—Part 9: In-situ tests. Br. Stand. Inst. (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  38. ASTM D1586-11: Standard test method for standard penetration test (SPT) and split-barrel sampling of soils. ASTM Stand. ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, Penn. US. (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  39. EN ISO 22476-3: Geotechnical investigation and testing—Field testing—Part 3: Standard penetration test. In: CEN, Brussels, Belgium.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Fletcher, G.F.A.: Standard penetration test: Its uses and abuses. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 91, 67–75 (1965)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Skempton, A.W.: Standard penetration test procedures and the effects in sands of overburden pressure, relative density, particle size, ageing and overconsolidation. Geotechnique 36, 425–447 (1986)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Liao, S.S.C., Whitman, R.V.: Overburden correction factors for SPT in sand. J. Geotech. Eng. 112, 373–377 (1986)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Ameratunga, J., Sivakugan, N., Das, B.M.: Correlations of Soil and Rock Properties in Geotechnical Engineering. Springer India, New Delhi (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  44. EN ISO 22476-2: Geotechnical investigation and testing Field testing—Port 2: Dynamic probing. In: CEN, Brussels, Belgium

    Google Scholar 

  45. ASTM D3441-16: Standard Test Method for Mechanical Cone Penetration Testing of Soils. ASTM Stand. ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, Penn. US. (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  46. ASTM D5778-07: Standard test method for electronic friction cone and piezocone penetration testing of soils. ASTM Stand. ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, Penn

    Google Scholar 

  47. EN ISO 22476-1: Geotechnical investigation and testing—Field testing—Part 1: Electrical cone and piezocone penetration tests. In: CEN, Brussels, Belgium

    Google Scholar 

  48. Robertson, P.K., Campanella, R.G.: Guidelines for Use and Interpretation of the Electric Cone Penetration Test. Hogentogler & Company Inc, 3rd ed (1986)

    Google Scholar 

  49. Lunne, T., Powell, J.J.M., Robertson, P.K.: Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice. CRC Press (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  50. Youd, T.L., Idriss, I.M.: Liquefaction resistance of soils: Summary report from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF workshops on evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 127, 297–313 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Robertson, P.K.: In situ testing and its application to foundation engineering. Can. Geotech. J. 23, 573–594 (1986)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Robertson, P.K.: Soil classification using the cone penetration test. Can. Geotech. J. 27, 151–158 (1990)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Olsen, R.S., Mitchell, J.: CPT Stress normalisation and prediction of soil classification, pp. 257–262. Int. Symp. Cone Penetration Testing, CPT (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  54. Barnard, H., Heymann, G.: The effect of bedding errors on the accuracy of plate load tests. J. South African Inst. Civ. Eng. 57, 67–76 (2015)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. ASTM D1196M-12: Standard Test Method for Nonrepetitive Static Plate Load Tests of Soils and Flexible Pavement Components, for Use in Evaluation and Design of. ASTM Stand. ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, Penn. US.

    Google Scholar 

  56. EN ISO 22476-13: Geotechnical Investigation and testing—Field testing—Part 13: Plate loading test. In: CEN. Brussels, Belgium

    Google Scholar 

  57. ASTM D4719-07: Standard Test Methods for Prebored Pressuremeter Testing in Soils. ASTM Stand. ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, Penn. U.S. (2007)

    Google Scholar 

  58. EN ISO 22476-4: Geotechnical investigation and testing—Field testing—Part 4: Menard pressuremeter test. In: CEN. Brussels, Belgium

    Google Scholar 

  59. Briaud, J.L.: Ménard lecture: The pressuremeter test: Expanding its use. In: 18th International Conference Soil Mechanices Geotechnical Engineering Challenges Innovations Geotechnics. ICSMGE 2013, vol. 1, 107–126 (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  60. Monnet, J.: Numerical analysis for the interpretation of the pressuremeter test in granular soil. In: 18éme Congrés Français de Mécanique. Grenoble (2007)

    Google Scholar 

  61. EN ISO 22476-6: Geotechnical investigation and testing Field testing—Part 6: Self-boring pressuremeter test. In: CEN, Brussels, Belgium.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Wroth, C.P.. H.I.M.O.: An instrument for the in situ measurement of the properties of soft clays. Technical Report Soils TR13. University of Cambridge (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  63. Baguelin, F., Jezeguel, J.F., Shields D.H.: The Pressuremeter and foundation engineering. Trans. Tech. Public. (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  64. Wang, K., Xu, G., Wang, J., Wang, C.: Self-boring in situ shear pressuremeter testing of clay from Dalian Bay. China. Soils Found. 58, 1212–1227 (2018)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Marchetti, S.: In situ tests by flat dilatometer. J. Geotech. Eng. Div. ASCE. 106, 299–321 (1980)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Marchetti, S.: The flat dilatometer: Design applications. In: 3rd Geotechnical Engineering Conferences, Keynote Lecture, pp. 421–448 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  67. Monaco, P., Marchetti, S., Totani, G., Calabrese, M.: Sand liquefiability assessment by Flat Dilatometer Test (DMT) Évaluation de la susceptibilité à la liquéfaction des sables par l’essai de dilatomètre (DMT). In: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering: Geotechnology in Harmony with the Global Environment, pp. 2693–2697 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  68. ASTM D6635-15: Standard Test Method for Performing the Flat Plate Dilatometer. ASTM Stand. ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, Penn.

    Google Scholar 

  69. EN ISO 22476-11: Geotechnical investigation and testing—Field testing—Part 11: Flat dilatometer test. . In: CEN, Brussels, Belgium.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Marchetti, S., Monaco, P., T.G. & C.M.: The flat dilatometer test (DMT) in soil investigations—A Report by the ISSMGE Committee TC16. In: Proceeding of the 2nd International Conference on the Flat Dilatometer (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  71. Marchetti, S.: Some 2015 Updates to the TC16 DMT Report 2001. In: 3rd International Conference Flat Dilatom, pp. 43–65 (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  72. ASTM D2573-08: Standard test method for field vane shear test in cohesive soil. ASTM Stand. ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, Penn

    Google Scholar 

  73. EN ISO 22476-9: Geotechnical investigation and testing—Field testing—Part 9: Field vane test. . In: CEN, Brussels, Belgium

    Google Scholar 

  74. Andersen, J.D., Okkels, N., Andersen, J.D.: Introduction of a fast multi-soil test to field vane standards. In: Proceedings of the XVII ECSMGE-2019, pp. 1–8 (2019)

    Google Scholar 

  75. Chandler, R.: The In-Situ measurement of the undrained shear strength of clays using the field vane. In: Vane Shear Strength Testing in Soils: Field and Laboratory Studies. pp. 13–13–32. ASTM International (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  76. ASTM D2434-19: Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head). ASTM Stand. ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, Penn.

    Google Scholar 

  77. ASTM D4044: Standard test method (field procedure) for instantaneous change in head (slug) tests for determining hydraulic properties of aquifers. ASTM Stand. ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, Penn.

    Google Scholar 

  78. ISO 22282-2: Geotechnical investigation and testing—Geohydraulic testing—Part 2: Water permeability tests in a borehole using open systems. Geneva, Switzerland: ISO (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  79. Hvorslev, M.J.: Time lag and soil permeability in ground-water observations. Bull. 36, 53 (1951)

    Google Scholar 

  80. Cassan, M.: Les essais de perméabilité sur site dans la reconnaissance des sols. Presses des Ponts, Paris (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  81. Monnet, J.: In Situ Tests in Geotechnical Engineering. Wiley (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  82. CAN/BNQ2501-135: Determination of Permeability by the Lefranc Method. National Standard of Canada, Ottawa, ON (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  83. Randolph, M., Cassidy, M., Gourvenec, S., Erbrich, C.: Challenges of offshore geotechnical engineering. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering: Geotechnology in Harmony with the Global Environment. pp. 123–176 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  84. SUT: Offshore Site Investigation and Geotechnics Group (OSIG) of the Society for Underwater Technology (SUT): Guidance Notes on Site Investigations for Offshore Renewable Energy Projects (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  85. Fung, A.K.L., Foott, R., Cheung, R.K.H., Koutsoftas, D.C.: Practical conclusions from the geotechnical studies on offshore reclamation for the proposed Chek Lap Kok Airport. Hong Kong Eng. 12 (1984)

    Google Scholar 

  86. Danson, E. (ed.): Geotechnical and geophysical investigations for offshore and nearshore developments. Tech. Comm. 1, Int. Soc. Soil Mech. Geotech. Eng. ISSMGE (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  87. Lunne, T., Tjelta, T.I., Walta, A., Barwise, A.: Design and testing out of deepwater seabed sampler. In: Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas. Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  88. Lunne, T., Andersen, K.H., Low, H.E., Randolph, M.F., Sjursen, M.: Guidelines for offshore in situ testing and interpretation in deepwater soft clays. Can. Geotech. J. 48, 543–556 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1139/t10-088

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Merritt, A.S., Schroeder, F.C., Jardine, R.J., Stuyts, B., Cathie, D., Cleverly, W.: Development of pile design methodology for an offshore wind farm in the north sea. Offshore Site Investig. Geotech. 2012 Integr. Technol. - Present Futur. OSIG 2012. 439–447 (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  90. Norsok Standard G-CR-001: Marine soil investigations. NTS (Norwegian Technology Standards Institution) (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  91. Boggess, R., Robertson, P.: CPT for soft sediments and deepwater investigations. In: Proceeding of CPT’10, 2nd International Symposium on Cone Penetration Testing. pp. 1–17. Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), Huntingdon Beach, California (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  92. Kelleher, P.J., Randolph, M.F.: Seabed geotechnical characterisation with a ball penetrometer deployed from the portable remotely operated drill. In: Frontiers in Offshore Geotechnics, ISFOG 2005—Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Frontiers in Offshore Geotechnics, pp. 365–371 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  93. Kammer, J., Frederiksen, J.K., Hansen, G.L., Hammami, R., Morrison, P., Mortensen, N., Skjellerup, P.: Fehmarnbelt fixed link—Geotechnical investigations. In: 12th Baltic Sea Geotechnical Conference (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  94. GDR 00.1-001: Ground investigation report. Rambøll Arup Joint Venture (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  95. Morrison, P., Kammer, J., Hammami, R., Frederiksen, J.K., Hansen, G.L., Humpheson, C.: Fehmarnbelt fixed link—Trial excavation. In: Geotechnical Engineering for Infrastructure and Development—Proceedings of the XVI European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, ECSMGE 2015, pp. 3029–3034. ICE Publishing (2015)

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was funded by the Portuguese Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) I.P./MCTES through national funds (PIDDAC) – UIDB/50019/2020. Several projects partially supported H. I. Chaminé: LABCARGA|ISEP re-equipment program (IPP-ISEP|PAD’2007/08), and Centre GeoBioTec|UA (UID/GEO/04035/2020). Special thanks to L. Freitas (labcarga|ISEP) for the careful final editing of the figures. We also recognise the company Geocontrole for kindly sharing some of the equipment images. Our gratitude to the colleague editors, especially J. Neves, for the challenging invitation and full support throughout the editorial stage. This chapter is dedicated to J. M. Cotelo Neiva, R. Oliveira and A. Costa Pereira, outstanding geologists and pioneers of engineering geology in Portugal, as well as to the hydrogeologist J. Martins Carvalho.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. IDL—Instituto Dom Luiz, Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

    Isabel Fernandes

  2. Laboratory of Cartography and Applied Geology, Department of Geotechnical Engineering, School of Engineering (ISEP), Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal

    Helder I. Chaminé

  3. Centre GeoBioTEc|UA, Aveiro, Portugal

    Helder I. Chaminé

Authors
  1. Isabel Fernandes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Helder I. Chaminé
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Isabel Fernandes .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. CERIS, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

    Carlos Chastre

  2. CERIS, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

    José Neves

  3. CONSTRUCT-LESE, School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal

    Diogo Ribeiro

  4. NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

    Maria Graça Neves

  5. CERIS, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

    Paulina Faria

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Fernandes, I., Chaminé, H.I. (2023). In Situ Geotechnical Investigations. In: Chastre, C., Neves, J., Ribeiro, D., Neves, M.G., Faria, P. (eds) Advances on Testing and Experimentation in Civil Engineering. Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05875-2_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05875-2_2

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-05874-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-05875-2

  • eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation