Abstract
Increasing evidence indicates that many published findings in psychology may be overestimated or even false. An often-heard response to this “replication crisis” is to replicate more: replication studies should weed out false positives over time and increase the robustness of psychological science. However, replications take time and money – resources that are often scarce. In this chapter, I propose an efficient alternative strategy: a four-step robustness check that first focuses on verifying reported numbers through reanalysis before replicating studies in a new sample.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aczel, B., Szaszi, B., Sarafoglou, A., Kekecs, Z., Kucharský, Š., Benjamin, D., Chambers, C. D., Fisher, A., Gelman, A., Gernsbacher, M. A., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Johnson, E., Jonas, K., Kousta, S., Lilienfeld, S. O., Lindsay, D. S., Morey, C. C., Munafò, M., Newell, B. R., … Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2020). A consensus-based transparency checklist. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(1), 4–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-019-0772-6
Agnoli, F., Wicherts, J. M., Veldkamp, C. L. S., Albiero, P., & Cubelli, R. (2017). Questionable research practices among Italian research psychologists. PLoS One, 12(3), e0172792. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172792
Alogna, V. K., Attaya, M. K., Aucoin, P., Bahník, Š., Birch, S., Birt, A. R., Bornstein, B. H., Bouwmeester, S., Brandimonte, M. A., Brown, C., Buswell, K., Carlson, C., Carlson, M., Chu, S., Cislak, A., Colarusso, M., Colloff, M. F., Dellapaolera, K. S., Delvenne, J.-F., … Zwaan, R. A. (2014). Registered replication report: Schooler and Engstler-Schooler (1990). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(5), 556–578. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614545653
American Psychological Association. (2019). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). American Psychological Association.
Anderson, C. J., Bahník, Š., Barnett-Cowan, M., Bosco, F. A., Chandler, J., Chartier, C. R., Cheung, F., Christopherson, C. D., Cordes, A., Cremata, E. J., Penna, N. D., Estel, V., Fedor, A., Fitneva, S. A., Frank, M. C., Grange, J. A., Hartshorne, J. K., Hasselman, F., Henninger, F., … Zuni, K. (2016). Response to comment on “Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science”. Science, 351(6277), 1037–1037. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad9163
Anderson, S. F., & Maxwell, S. E. (2017). Addressing the “replication crisis”: Using original studies to design replication studies with appropriate statistical power. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 52(3), 305–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2017.1289361
Appelbaum, M., Cooper, H., Kline, R. B., Mayo-Wilson, E., Nezu, A. M., & Rao, S. M. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report. American Psychologist, 73(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000191
Association for Psychological Science. (n.d.). Registered replication reports. Association for Psychological Science – APS. Retrieved 27 Feb 2021, from https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/replication
Bakker, M., van Dijk, A., & Wicherts, J. M. (2012). The rules of the game called psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 543–554. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612459060
Bakker, M., & Wicherts, J. M. (2011). The (mis)reporting of statistical results in psychology journals. Behavior Research Methods, 43(3), 666–678. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-011-0089-5
Bavel, J. J. V., Mende-Siedlecki, P., Brady, W. J., & Reinero, D. A. (2016). Contextual sensitivity in scientific reproducibility. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(23), 6454–6459. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1521897113
Benjamin, D. J., Berger, J. O., Johannesson, M., Nosek, B. A., Wagenmakers, E.-J., Berk, R., Bollen, K. A., Brembs, B., Brown, L., Camerer, C., Cesarini, D., Chambers, C. D., Clyde, M., Cook, T. D., De Boeck, P., Dienes, Z., Dreber, A., Easwaran, K., Efferson, C., … Johnson, V. E. (2018). Redefine statistical significance. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(1), 6–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0189-z
Brandt, M. J., IJzerman, H., Dijksterhuis, A., Farach, F. J., Geller, J., Giner-Sorolla, R., Grange, J. A., Perugini, M., Spies, J. R., & van’t Veer, A. (2014). The replication recipe: What makes for a convincing replication? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 50, 217–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2013.10.005
Brown, N. J. L., & Heathers, J. A. J. (2017). The GRIM test: A simple technique detects numerous anomalies in the reporting of results in psychology. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(4), 363–369. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550616673876
Button, K. S., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Mokrysz, C., Nosek, B. A., Flint, J., Robinson, E. S., & Munafò, M. R. (2013). Power failure: Why small sample size undermines the reliability of neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14(5), 365–376. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3475
Center for Open Science. (n.d.-a). Open Science Badges. Retrieved 23 Feb 2021, from https://www.cos.io/initiatives/badges
Center for Open Science. (n.d.-b). TOP guidelines. Retrieved 28 Feb 2021, from https://www.cos.io/initiatives/top-guidelines
Chabris, C. F., Hebert, B. M., Benjamin, D. J., Beauchamp, J., Cesarini, D., van der Loos, M., Johannesson, M., Magnusson, P. K. E., Lichtenstein, P., Atwood, C. S., Freese, J., Hauser, T. S., Hauser, R. M., Christakis, N., & Laibson, D. (2012). Most reported genetic associations with general intelligence are probably false positives. Psychological Science, 23(11), 1314–1323. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611435528
Chambers, C. D. (2013). Registered reports: A new publishing initiative at Cortex. Cortex, 49(3), 609–610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2012.12.016
Chambers, C. D. (2017). The seven deadly sins of psychology: A manifesto for reforming the culture of scientific practice. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400884940
Chambers, C. D. (2018). Introducing the transparency and openness promotion (TOP) guidelines and badges for open practices at Cortex. Cortex, 106, 316–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2018.08.001
Chambers, C. D. (2020). Verification reports: A new article type at Cortex. Cortex. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2020.04.020
Christensen, G., Dafoe, A., Miguel, E., Moore, D. A., & Rose, A. K. (2019). A study of the impact of data sharing on article citations using journal policies as a natural experiment. PLoS One, 14(12), e0225883. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225883
Cumming, G. (2014). The new statistics: Why and how. Psychological Science, 25(1), 7–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613504966
Doyen, S., Klein, O., Pichon, C.-L., & Cleeremans, A. (2012). Behavioral priming: It’s all in the mind, but whose mind? PLoS One, 7(1), e29081. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029081
Epskamp, S., & Nuijten, M. B. (2014). statcheck: Extract statistics from articles and recompute p-values. Retrieved from http://CRAN.Rproject.org/package=statcheck. (R package version 1.0.0)
Eronen, M. I., & Bringmann, L. F. (2021). The theory crisis in psychology: How to move forward. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 1745691620970586. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620970586
Etz, A., & Vandekerckhove, J. (2016). A Bayesian perspective on the reproducibility project: Psychology. PLoS One, 11(2), e0149794.
Fanelli, D. (2010). “Positive” results increase down the hierarchy of the sciences. PLoS One, 5(4), e10068. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010068
Fiedler, K., & Schwarz, N. (2016). Questionable research practices revisited. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7(1), 45–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550615612150
Flake, J. K., & Fried, E. I. (2020). Measurement schmeasurement: Questionable measurement practices and how to avoid them. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 2515245920952393. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245920952393
Francis, G., Tanzman, J., & Matthews, W. J. (2014). Excess success for psychology articles in the journal Science. PLoS One, 9(12), e114255.
Franco, A., Malhotra, N., & Simonovits, G. (2016). Underreporting in psychology experiments: Evidence from a study registry. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7(1), 8–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550615598377
Frank, M. C., & Saxe, R. (2012). Teaching replication. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 600–604. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612460686
Gelman, A., & Loken, E. (2013). The garden of forking paths: Why multiple comparisons can be a problem, even when there is no “fishing expedition” or “p-hacking” and the research hypothesis was posited ahead of time (p. 348). Department of Statistics, Columbia University.
Georgescu, C., & Wren, J. D. (2018). Algorithmic identification of discrepancies between published ratios and their reported confidence intervals and P-values. Bioinformatics, 34(10), 1758–1766. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btx811
Gilbert, D. T., King, G., Pettigrew, S., & Wilson, T. D. (2016). Comment on “Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science”. Science, 351(6277), 1037–1037. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad7243
Greenwald, A. G. (1975). Consequences of prejudice against the null hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 82(1), 1–20.
Hardwicke, T. E., Bohn, M., MacDonald, K., Hembacher, E., Nuijten, M. B., Peloquin, B. N., DeMayo, B. E., Long, B., Yoon, E. J., & Frank, M. C. (2020). Analytic reproducibility in articles receiving open data badges at Psychological Science: An observational study. Preprint Retrieved from https://Osf.Io/Preprints/Metaarxiv/H35wt/. https://doi.org/10.31222/osf.io/h35wt.
Hardwicke, T. E., Mathur, M. B., MacDonald, K., Nilsonne, G., Banks, G. C., Kidwell, M. C., Hofelich Mohr, A., Clayton, E., Yoon, E. J., & Henry Tessler, M. (2018). Data availability, reusability, and analytic reproducibility: Evaluating the impact of a mandatory open data policy at the journal Cognition. Royal Society Open Science, 5(8), 180448. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.180448
Horstmann, K. T., Arslan, R. C., & Greiff, S. (2020). Generating codebooks to ensure the independent use of research data: Some guidelines. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 36(5), 721–729. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000620
John, L. K., Loewenstein, G., & Prelec, D. (2012). Measuring the prevalence of questionable research practices with incentives for truth telling. Psychological Science, 23(5), 524–532. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611430953
Jonas, K. J., Cesario, J., Alger, M., Bailey, A. H., Bombari, D., Carney, D., Dovidio, J. F., Duffy, S., Harder, J. A., van Huistee, D., Jackson, B., Johnson, D. J., Keller, V. N., Klaschinski, L., LaBelle, O., LaFrance, M., Latu, I. M., Morssinkhoff, M., Nault, K., … Tybur, J. M. (2017). Power poses – Where do we stand? Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology, 2(1), 139–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/23743603.2017.1342447
Kerr, N. L. (1998). HARKing: Hypothesizing after the results are known. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(3), 196–217. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0203_4
Kidwell, M. C., Lazarević, L. B., Baranski, E., Hardwicke, T. E., Piechowski, S., Falkenberg, L.-S., Kennett, C., Slowik, A., Sonnleitner, C., & Hess-Holden, C. (2016). Badges to acknowledge open practices: A simple, low-cost, effective method for increasing transparency. PLoS Biology, 14(5), e1002456. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002456
Klein, O., Hardwicke, T. E., Aust, F., Breuer, J., Danielsson, H., Hofelich Mohr, A., IJzerman, H., Nilsonne, G., Vanpaemel, W., & Frank, M. C. (2018). A practical guide for transparency in psychological science. Collabra: Psychology, 4(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.158
Klein, R. A., Ratliff, K. A., Vianello, M., Adams, R. B., Jr., Bahník, Š., Bernstein, M. J., Bocian, K., Brandt, M. J., Brooks, B., & Brumbaugh, C. C. (2014). Investigating variation in replicability: A “Many Labs” replication project. Social Psychology, 45(3), 142–152.
Kochari, A. R., & Ostarek, M. (2018). Introducing a replication-first rule for PhD projects (commentary on Zwaan et al., ‘Making replication mainstream’). Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 41. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X18000730
Lakatos, I., & Musgrave, A. (1970). Criticism and the growth of knowledge. Cambridge University Press.
Lakens, D., Adolfi, F. G., Albers, C. J., Anvari, F., Apps, M. A. J., Argamon, S. E., Baguley, T., Becker, R. B., Benning, S. D., Bradford, D. E., Buchanan, E. M., Caldwell, A. R., Van Calster, B., Carlsson, R., Chen, S.-C., Chung, B., Colling, L. J., Collins, G. S., Crook, Z., … Zwaan, R. A. (2018). Justify your alpha. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(3), 168–171. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0311-x
Lakens, D., & Evers, E. R. K. (2014). Sailing from the seas of chaos into the corridor of stability: Practical recommendations to increase the informational value of studies. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(3), 278–292. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614528520
LeBel, E. P. (2015). A new replication norm for psychology. Collabra, 1(4). https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.23
LeBel, E. P., Berger, D., Campbell, L., & Loving, T. J. (2017). Falsifiability is not optional. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(2), 254–261. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000106
LeBel, E. P., & Campbell, L. (2013). Heightened sensitivity to temperature cues in individuals with high anxious attachment: Real or elusive phenomenon? Psychological Science, 24(10), 2128–2130. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613486983
LeBel, E. P., McCarthy, R. J., Earp, B. D., Elson, M., & Vanpaemel, W. (2018). A unified framework to quantify the credibility of scientific findings. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 1(3), 389–402. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245918787489
LeBel, E. P., Vanpaemel, W., Cheung, I., & Campbell, L. (2019). A brief guide to evaluate replications. Meta-Psychology, 3. https://doi.org/10.15626/MP.2018.843
Makel, M. C., Plucker, J. A., & Hegarty, B. (2012). Replications in psychology research: How often do they really occur? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 537–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612460688
ManyBabies Consortium. (2020). Quantifying sources of variability in infancy research using the infant-directed-speech preference. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 3(1), 24–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245919900809
Marsman, M., & Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2017). Bayesian benefits with JASP. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 14(5), 545–555. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2016.1259614
Matthews, W. J. (2012). How much do incidental values affect the judgment of time? Psychological Science, 23(11), 1432–1434. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612441609
Mayo, D. G. (2018). Statistical inference as severe testing. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/statistical-inference-as-severe-testing/copyright-page/55AF1D228E1401D0912B1D59E7400BD3
Meehl, P. E. (1990). Appraising and amending theories: The strategy of Lakatosian defense and two principles that warrant it. Psychological Inquiry, 1(2), 108–141. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0102_1
Morling, B. (2020). Research methods in psychology (4th ed.). W. W. Norton & Company.
Moshontz, H., Campbell, L., Ebersole, C. R., IJzerman, H., Urry, H. L., Forscher, P. S., Grahe, J. E., McCarthy, R. J., Musser, E. D., Antfolk, J., Castille, C. M., Evans, T. R., Fiedler, S., Flake, J. K., Forero, D. A., Janssen, S. M. J., Keene, J. R., Protzko, J., Aczel, B., … Chartier, C. R. (2018). The psychological science accelerator: Advancing psychology through a distributed collaborative network. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 1(4), 501–515. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245918797607
Munafò, M. R., Nosek, B. A., Bishop, D. V., Button, K. S., Chambers, C. D., Du Sert, N. P., Simonsohn, U., Wagenmakers, E.-J., Ware, J. J., & Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2017). A manifesto for reproducible science. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-016-0021
Naudet, F., Sakarovitch, C., Janiaud, P., Cristea, I., Fanelli, D., Moher, D., & Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2018). Data sharing and reanalysis of randomized controlled trials in leading biomedical journals with a full data sharing policy: Survey of studies published in The BMJ and PLOS Medicine. British Medical Journal, 360, k400. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k400
Neuliep, J. W., & Crandall, R. (1993). Everyone was wrong: There are lots of replications out there. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 8(6), 1–8.
Nieuwenhuis, S., Forstmann, B. U., & Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2011). Erroneous analyses of interactions in neuroscience: A problem of significance. Nature Neuroscience, 14(9), 1105–1107. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2886
Nosek, B. A., Hardwicke, T. E., Moshontz, H., Allard, A., Corker, K. S., Almenberg, A. D., Fidler, F., Hilgard, J., Kline, M., Nuijten, M. B., Rohrer, J. M., Romero, F., Scheel, A. M., Scherer, L., Schönbrodt, F., & Vazire, S. (2021). Replicability, robustness, and reproducibility in psychological science. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/ksfvq
Nosek, B. A., & Lakens, D. (2014). Registered reports: A method to increase the credibility of published results. Social Psychology, 45(3), 137–141. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000192
Nosek, B. A., Spies, J. R., & Motyl, M. (2012). Scientific Utopia: II. Restructuring incentives and practices to promote truth over publishability. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 615–631. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612459058
Nuijten, M. B., Bakker, M., Maassen, E., & Wicherts, J. M. (2018). Verify original results through reanalysis before replicating. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 41, e143. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X18000791
Nuijten, M. B., Borghuis, J., Veldkamp, C. L., Dominguez-Alvarez, L., Van Assen, M. A., & Wicherts, J. M. (2017a). Journal data sharing policies and statistical reporting inconsistencies in psychology. Collabra: Psychology, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.102
Nuijten, M. B., Hartgerink, C. H. J., van Assen, M. A. L. M., Epskamp, S., & Wicherts, J. M. (2016). The prevalence of statistical reporting errors in psychology (1985–2013). Behavior Research Methods, 48(4), 1205–1226. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0664-2
Nuijten, M. B., Van Assen, M. A. L. M., Hartgerink, C. H. J., Epskamp, S., & Wicherts, J. (2017b). The validity of the tool “statcheck” in discovering statistical reporting inconsistencies. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/tcxaj
O’Donohue, W. (2021). Are psychologists appraising research properly? Some Popperian notes regarding replication failures in psychology. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 41(4), 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/teo0000179
Open Science Collaboration. (2012). An open, large-scale, collaborative effort to estimate the reproducibility of psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 657–660. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612462588
Open Science Collaboration. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349(6251), aac4716. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4716
Pashler, H., & Harris, C. R. (2012). Is the replicability crisis overblown? Three arguments examined. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 531–536. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612463401
Pashler, H., Rohrer, D., & Harris, C. R. (2013). Can the goal of honesty be primed? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(6), 959–964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2013.05.011
Pashler, H., & Wagenmakers, E. (2012). Editors’ introduction to the special section on replicability in psychological science: A crisis of confidence? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 528–530. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612465253
Patel, C. J., Burford, B., & Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2015). Assessment of vibration of effects due to model specification can demonstrate the instability of observational associations. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 68(9), 1046–1058.
Peng, R. D. (2011). Reproducible research in computational science. Science, 334(6060), 1226–1227. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1213847
Petrocelli, J. V., Clarkson, J. J., Whitmire, M. B., & Moon, P. E. (2013). When ab ≠ c – c′: Published errors in the reports of single-mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 45(2), 595–601. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-012-0262-5
Piwowar, H. A., Day, R. S., & Fridsma, D. B. (2007). Sharing detailed research data is associated with increased citation rate. PLoS One, 2(3), e308. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000308
Popper, K. R. (1959). The logic of scientific discovery. University Press.
Rife, S. C., Nuijten, M. B., & Epskamp, S. (2016). statcheck: Extract statistics from articles and recompute p-values [web application]. http://statcheck.io
Silberzahn, R., Uhlmann, E. L., Martin, D. P., Anselmi, P., Aust, F., Awtrey, E., Bahník, Š., Bai, F., Bannard, C., Bonnier, E., Carlsson, R., Cheung, F., Christensen, G., Clay, R., Craig, M. A., Dalla Rosa, A., Dam, L., Evans, M. H., Flores Cervantes, I., … Nosek, B. A. (2018). Many analysts, one data set: Making transparent how variations in analytic choices affect results. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 1(3), 337–356. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245917747646
Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2011). False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1359–1366. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417632
Simonsohn, U. (2015). Small telescopes: Detectability and the evaluation of replication results. Psychological Science, 26(5), 559–569. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614567341
Simonsohn, U., Simmons, J. P., & Nelson, L. D. (2019). Specification curve: Descriptive and inferential statistics on all reasonable specifications (SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 2694998). Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2694998
Stark, P. B. (2018). Before reproducibility must come preproducibility. Nature, 557(7707), 613–613. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05256-0
Steegen, S., Tuerlinckx, F., Gelman, A., & Vanpaemel, W. (2016). Increasing transparency through a multiverse analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(5), 702–712. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616658637
Sterling, T. D. (1959). Publication decisions and their possible effects on inferences drawn from tests of significance—Or vice versa. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 54(285), 30–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1959.10501497
Sterling, T. D., Rosenbaum, W. L., & Weinkam, J. J. (1995). Publication decisions revisited: The effect of the outcome of statistical tests on the decision to publish and vice versa. The American Statistician, 49(1), 108–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/00031305.1995.10476125
Stodden, V. C. (2010). Reproducible research: Addressing the need for data and code sharing in computational science. Computing in Science & Engineering, 5, 8–12.
Sweeney, L. (2002). K-anonymity: A model for protecting privacy. International Journal of Uncertainty, Fuzziness and Knowledge-Based Systems, 10(05), 557–570. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218488502001648
The Dutch Research Council. (n.d.). Replication studies | NWO. Retrieved 24 Feb 2021, from https://www.nwo.nl/en/researchprogrammes/replication-studies
Tijdink, J. K., Verbeke, R., & Smulders, Y. M. (2014). Publication pressure and scientific misconduct in medical scientists. Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics, 9(5), 64–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1556264614552421
van Aert, R. C. M., Nuijten, M. B., Olsson-Collentine, A., Stoevenbelt, A. H., Van den Akker, O. R., & Wicherts, J. M. (2021). Comparing the prevalence of statistical reporting inconsistencies in COVID-19 preprints and matched controls: A registered report. Royal Society Open Science. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/WCND4
van Dalen, H. P., & Henkens, K. (2012). Intended and unintended consequences of a publish-or-perish culture: A worldwide survey. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 63(7), 1282–1293. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.22636
Verhagen, J., & Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2014). Bayesian tests to quantify the result of a replication attempt. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(4), 1457.
Wagenmakers, E.-J., Wetzels, R., Borsboom, D., van der Maas, H. L. J., & Kievit, R. A. (2012). An agenda for purely confirmatory research. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 632–638. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612463078
Wicherts, J. M. (2013). Science revolves around the data. Journal of Open Psychology Data, 1(1), e1. https://doi.org/10.5334/jopd.e1
Wicherts, J. M., Borsboom, D., Kats, J., & Molenaar, D. (2006). The poor availability of psychological research data for reanalysis. American Psychologist, 61(7), 726. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.726
Wicherts, J. M., Kievit, R. A., Bakker, M., & Borsboom, D. (2012). Letting the daylight in: Reviewing the reviewers and other ways to maximize transparency in science. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncom.2012.00020
Wilkinson, M. D., Dumontier, M., Aalbersberg, I. J., Appleton, G., Axton, M., Baak, A., Blomberg, N., Boiten, J.-W., da Silva Santos, L. B., Bourne, P. E., Bouwman, J., Brookes, A. J., Clark, T., Crosas, M., Dillo, I., Dumon, O., Edmunds, S., Evelo, C. T., Finkers, R., … Mons, B. (2016). The FAIR guiding principles for scientific data management and stewardship. Scientific Data, 3(1), 160018. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.18
Zwaan, R., Etz, A., Lucas, R., & Donnellan, B. (2017). Making replication mainstream. Behavioral and Brain Sciences: An International Journal of Current Research and Theory with Open Peer Commentary, 1–50. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X17001972
Acknowledgements
The preparation of this chapter was supported by a Veni grant (no. 11507) from the Dutch Research Council.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Nuijten, M.B. (2022). Assessing and Improving Robustness of Psychological Research Findings in Four Steps. In: O'Donohue, W., Masuda, A., Lilienfeld, S. (eds) Avoiding Questionable Research Practices in Applied Psychology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04968-2_17
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04968-2_17
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-04967-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-04968-2
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)