Keywords

1 Learning and Well-Being in Schools

Udeskole is a broad term for education outside the classroom, which, on the basis of the teacher’s objectives, is regularly conducted outside the school walls (see Mygind: Udeskole—Pupils’ Physical Activity and Gender Perspectives in this volume). In research, regularity is defined as at least half a school day bi-weekly over a longer period of time. Udeskole provides variation to the school day and incorporates the environment outside the school buildings into the weekly or bi-weekly teaching. In some classes, pupils measure the soil temperature in science teaching and math. Others visit memorials as part of history classes, or draw inspiration in the forest for written narratives in language classes. Udeskole is practically oriented and concrete. Case studies indicate that most pupils welcome udeskole as a meaningful variation to the school day (Hartmeyer & Mygind, 2016; Mygind, 2009). This is supported by interviews with teachers, conducted as part of the TEACHOUT study (Barfod, 2017; Mygind et al., 2018, see Barfod & Mygind: Udeskole—Regular Teaching Outside the Classroom in this volume).

Udeskole gives rise to learning processes other than typical classroom teaching and it is expected that udeskole can have a bearing on pupils’ interest and learning motivation (Bølling et al., 2017; Otte et al., 2019). But what about pupils’ well-being? Although the issue is far more multifaceted than a simple separation of the learning process into learning and well-being outcomes, the question arises whether udeskole is a teaching method that yields benefits beyond academic learning. To what extent can we expect udeskole to have a positive effect on pupils’ mental and social health? What are the possible causes of a possibly positive effect?

Questions about expected impact and causes are complex. Udeskole practices are implemented differently from teacher to teacher and pupils’ prerequisites and desire to attend udeskole will vary. Some pupils prefer to stay at school. Others may have difficulties concentrating in a classroom—perhaps especially boys. The effect of udeskole on pupils’ well-being should not only be seen as an occasional effect in a teaching situation. The question is whether the sum of the teaching situations during a school day which comprise udeskole has an impact on pupils’ general well-being and health in the school context, and ultimately on their overall well-being, mental and social health (Bølling, 2018).

If a pupil enjoys teaching that is carried out as udeskole, it can be expected that the pupil will have a generally strengthened well-being in the school context. This context-specific well-being may entail a generally strengthened well-being that extends beyond school hours and into everyday life. If a child thrives in everyday life, this will not only have a retroactive and self-reinforcing effect on well-being in school, but also a contagious effect on well-being in other contexts, such as at home in the family and with sports. In other words, a child’s well-being must not only be understood in a specific situation or context, but in relation to all the possible situations and contexts in which the child participates and the interplay between them, including the effect of social contagion on other children and teachers (see Frank, 2020).

Before we address the issue of whether udeskole can have a positive effect on pupils’ well-being, mental and social health, we step back. Many teachers already use udeskole as a teaching method for subject specific learning (Barfod et al., 2016), but can udeskole also be justified as an initiative to promote pupils’ well-being, mental and social health?

In Denmark, the core business of schools is defined by the purpose of primary and lower secondary school law to provide pupils with knowledge and skills, educational readiness and the desire to learn, and to ensure participation in the community. Much indicates that health promotion initiatives that are an integral part of the school’s core business have a greater success rate and that teachers will prefer to engage in health promotion that does not compromise the core tasks and take into account a schools’ uniqueness, culture and student base. In other words, an ‘add-in’ approach as opposed to an ‘add-on’ approach, where health promotion is placed on top of everyday teaching tasks, i.e. lies beyond the core tasks (Bentsen et al., 2020). However, the other side of the coin of an ‘add-in’ approach to health promotion in schools, is that the goals of mental and social health are moving out of focus when the schools’ academic tasks are prioritized.

Udeskole is a good example of an ‘add-in’ approach to health promotion. It is recommended that teachers use udeskole when it makes sense from a professional point of view (Barfod, 2017). To teach outside the classroom, within the existing number of hours, gives teachers the opportunity to specify a subject and allow pupils to take an increased active part in their learning process, for example by collecting empirical data. A teacher’s choice to use udeskole as a teaching method may also be rooted in the desire, for example, to ‘shake the class together’ and help more pupils perceive school life and school work as something positive. The goal of using udeskole and strengthening well-being, mental and social health in the class will probably never be isolated. In the end, a desire to promote well-being and health must be justified by the purpose of schooling and the academic goals. Udeskole might be a solution for promoting well-being and health within the framework of the school’s core tasks.

Does udeskole have an effect on pupils’ well-being?

Can teaching in the immediate vicinity of schools be a valuable addition to classroom teaching and contribute to pupils’ academic, mental and social development? This was one of the questions raised by Professor Arne Nikolaisen Jordet in the years just before the turn of the millennium, when he attended school classes at Lutvann public primary school in Oslo (Jordet, 2008). In the classes, weekly teaching took place in the schools’ local forest. Based on a large number of observations and interviews with teachers and pupils, Jordet pointed out, among other things, that udeskole could contribute positively to pupils’ personal and social development.

A Danish research team completed the first Danish udeskole project in the period 2000–2003—the case study of the Rødkilde project (Mygind, 2005). At that time, few schools in Denmark were practicing udeskole. Two teachers from the public Rødkilde School in Copenhagen agreed to use a forest as a classroom in the subjects Danish (mother tongue teaching), mathematics, and history every Thursday for three years. Although the study involved only one class—third grade at the start of the study—the study distinguished itself by following the class’s development over a number of years. One of several goals for the research team was to investigate the impact of a weekly udeskole day in the forest on pupils’ well-being compared to classroom teaching and learning. Two almost identical questionnaires were used and adapted for either forest or classroom teaching. The questionnaires included 10 statements about social relations and 14 statements about teaching. The results showed a positive development in different social relations through the variety and combination of forest and classroom teaching tasks (Mygind, 2009). In the forest setting, pupils gained several new play relationships with other classmates. This was explained by the fact that the pupils worked together in groups in a transition from academic activities to play during breaks.

There is good reason to believe that udeskole has a number of positive impacts on mental and social health. With the Rødkilde project as a benchmark, a series of interviews and observational studies were initiated evaluating education outside the classroom. In UK, for example, researchers found that teachers and pupils perceived udeskole as a teaching method with a positive impact on schoolwork and the social climate in the classroom (Marchant et al., 2019).

In Denmark, a follow-up to the Rødkilde project showed that seven years after participating in the project, pupils and teachers highlighted that the three years of udeskole had a positive impact especially on the social climate in the class (Hartmeyer & Mygind, 2016). In recent years, the Danish Ministry of Education’s project ‘Development of udeskole’ has documented that pupils generally perceive udeskole as positive, with learning and social potentials (Ejbye-Ernst & Bentsen, 2018; VIVE, 2019).

2 Mental and Social Health in the TEACHOUT Project

Across a number of Danish research institutions and in collaboration with a number of other researchers, we conducted the TEACHOUT research project in 2014–2018 including pupils from grade 3–6 and their teachers. The project constituted the most extensive study of udeskole to date, nationally and internationally. One of the aims of the project was to investigate whether there were positive effects on psychosocial well-being, school motivation, and social relationships in the class community after one year with udeskole.

Box 1

From school to school, and from teacher to teacher, it varies how much of a school year is prioritized for udeskole. Some schools practice udeskole every week the entire year, others use fall or spring and in a few cases udeskole is practiced at all grades. In the TEACHOUT project, the effect on well-being, mental and social health was examined in classes where udeskole was practised 4.7 h per week on average throughout the 2014/15 school year, equivalent to 14.2% of the standard teaching time (33 h per week). Danish, mathematics, and nature/technology were the most frequently used academic teaching subjects, with nature and green areas as the main preferred setting.

A total of 28 Danish school classes were accepted to join the TEACHOUT study and willing to teach udeskole one year at least 5 h per week. The 28 udeskole classes were compared with pupils from 20 parallel control classes, who were taught sporadically outside the classroom during the school year (in average 1.6 h per week, in 0.7 sessions). The reason why pupils in the control classes were also taught partly outside the classroom was mainly due to political demands of a revised school reform, demanding 45 min of daily physical activity and use of the surrounding society in pupils’ learning process (Danish Ministry of Education, 2014).

Psychosocial well-being

The TEACHOUT project was launched in the autumn 2014. At the start of the school year and again 180 days later in spring 2015 the instrument ‘Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire’ (SDQ) was used to measure 621 pupils’ social strengths with a prosocial scale (Bølling et al., 2019b). In our study, social strengths were an overall expression of empathy, helpfulness and kindness. The result showed that 503 pupils in the udeskole group maintained the level in social strength through the school year compared to a decrease among 118 pupils in the comparison classes (Fig. 1). The decline in social strengths in the comparison classes can be interpreted as an expression of a generally reduced commitment to the social and academic school community—an expression of school fatigue (Pless, 2009). Both prosocial behaviour and intrinsic motivation for schoolwork decreased in the comparison classes. Prosocial behaviour increased slightly in the udeskole classes (Fig. 1). In the study of social strengths, we also measured pupils’ mental and social problems (emotional symptoms, hyperactivity and attention problems, and difficulties with peers) using SDQ. After following the udeskole and comparison classes throughout the school year, we were unable to detect a statistically significant difference between the groups on these parameters. On the other hand, we found that there was a difference in effect between the pupils who came from resource-poor or resource-strong families, assessed based on pupils’ parents’ socio-economic position. We found that the pupils who came from resource-poor families had a greater reduction in hyperactivity and attention disorders, as well as a greater reduction in problems with peers. Although this result supports an assumption that udeskole can be particularly good for pupils from resource-poor families, the result is uncertain as the analyses included fewer than 20 pupils from resource-poor families.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Development in social strengths and intrinsic motivation for schoolwork from the start of the school year (September 2014) to the end of the school year (May 2015) for the udeskole and the comparison groups. Developments are measured on a scale of +1 to –1. The model indicates average values and takes into account any difference between pupils at the start of the school year, therefore the starting point is adjusted to the value 0.0

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Our study is not the first to examine the effect of udeskole on psychosocial well-being of pupils. A Swedish study using SDQ did not find that udeskole had a general effect on either girls or boys psychosocial well-being (Gustafsson et al., 2012). However, this study showed a distinctly positive effect for boys. Emotional and behavioural symptoms, hyperactivity and attention problems, and difficulties with peers were reduced.

The TEACHOUT and the Swedish studies are the only ones of their kind having investigated udeskole in a controlled experimental intervention using the SDQ questionnaire, but reach slightly different conclusions. However, it is worth noting that the TEACHOUT study was based on a high number of pupils in udeskole and including control classes (parallel classes) with weekly reports from teachers about where and how much udeskole was used. Overall, the results of TEACHOUT give quite a valid picture, but more research on psychosocial well-being and udeskole is needed.

Enjoyable schoolwork and intrinsic motivation

The effect of udeskole was also examined in relation to satisfying schoolwork, measured by intrinsic motivation for schoolwork (Bølling et al., 2018). Intrinsic motivation means that one’s behaviour is self-determined by one’s own interest in a given activity, e.g. schoolwork. Intrinsic motivation is a psychological stage closely related to mental well-being (Ryan, 2009).

Box 2

From start to end of the school year 2014–15 data from 308 pupils in the udeskole classes had a higher level of intrinsic motivation for schoolwork compared to 77 pupils in the comparison classes. The level of intrinsic motivation for udeskole schoolwork was relatively stable from the start of the school year to the end, whereas we observed a decrease in intrinsic motivation for schoolwork in the comparison classes, which in practice can be interpreted as udeskole having a form of buffer-effect (see Fig. 1). In other words, udeskole seems to offset an expected decline in intrinsic motivation for schoolwork during the school year. The decline may be due to school fatigue during the school year, but may also occur during school hours (Pless, 2009).

The effect of udeskole on enjoyable schoolwork is one of the areas that has been the subject of research interest in recent years. Common to the studies of enjoyable schoolwork is the use of intrinsic motivation for schoolwork as a measure, but most of these studies have examined the effect of short-term school science-camps (one week) for middle-aged pupils (Dettweiler et al., 2015, 2017). Overall, these studies show that this teaching method can have a positive impact on students’ intrinsic motivation. No other studies have examined udeskole lasting one year, as the TEACHOUT study did. However, one Swedish study has examined udeskole over a 10-week duration, where two seventh grade classes moved one quarter of mathematics lessons outside the classroom (Fägerstam & Samuelsson, 2014). The two udeskole classes had a better intrinsic motivation for schoolwork and thus showed the same buffer effect as we found in the TEACHOUT study. Overall, these studies show evidence of a positive effect of udeskole for maintaining intrinsic motivation for schoolwork.

Social relationships in the class community

In TEACHOUT, we examined the extent of new friendship relationships in class communities as a measure of social relationships. 448 pupils from a total of 16 udeskole classes and eight comparison classes were asked which new pupils from their class they played with in the breaks. When answering the question, it was not allowed to name yourself or those with whom you were very much in contact. This question is often used to form a picture of the friendship network in classes and as a method to measure new friendship relationships among pupils. By gathering pupils’ responses, we could conclude that udeskole had a small but positive effect on how many new relationships each pupil had on average during the school year. The number of new friendships as a result of udeskole showed that after one year, pupils in the udeskole classes on average had new friendships with 3.7% of other pupils in their class (see Box 3).

Box 3

In a class of 22 pupils, it is expected that on average one new friendship (exactly 0.8 pupil) will develop during a school year with udeskole (see Fig. 2). Our study showed that udeskole has a small effect on the total number of friendships. It seems that udeskole contributes to a modest increase in the number of new friendships. In the study on social relationships, we also examined the change in the size/number of pupils’ friendship groups, but did not find a statistically significant effect of one year of udeskole.

Fig. 2
figure 2

New friendships after a year with udeskole

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The TEACHOUT study on social relationships shows that only a minimal effect of one year of udeskole can be expected with a view to establishing new peer relationships in the class community. This is in line with the first Danish study of udeskole, the Rødkilde project. In this case study 14 out of 19 new pupil relationships were formed based on one weekly udeskole day taking place for three years in a forest, (Mygind, 2009). Although pupils are likely to form new relationships during an udeskole session, these relationships do not seem to apply in general school life. Further research needs to be conducted to clarify how new friendships affects the classroom environment.

Does udeskole have a bearing on pupils’ well-being?

Udeskole must be understood as a holistic approach in teaching that focuses not only on learning, academic benefit and education as a goal, but also on a much broader concept of well-being, including health benefits. Therefore, historically research in udeskole has been characterized by interdisciplinary approaches drawn on a wide range of theories (see Box 4). However, a unifying theory for udeskole has not been developed, which might, among other things, explain a connection between udeskole and pupils’ well-being, mental and social health and offer arguments for teachers, school leaders and politicians whether or not udeskole should be an integrated part of the work of the school.

Box 4

The currently most widely used theory to explain the link between udeskole and pupils’ well-being, mental and social health is the Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000). In addition to TEACHOUT, several other studies on udeskole and outdoor teaching and learning have had the ambition to use the Self-Determination Theory as a theory to understand why udeskole can have a positive influence on pupils’ well-being and health (e.g. Dettweiler et al., 2015). The theory represents a broad framework for the study of intrinsic and extrinsic sources of human motivation, devised by American psychologists Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan. A crucial starting point in the Self-Determination Theory is that humans have a fundamental need for development that can be ensured by meeting individuals’ basic psychological needs, specifically the feeling of:

  • Autonomy—that one’s own perception is based on one’s own values and interests.

  • Competence—to experience that you have opportunities to be active, feel active and be able to develop one’s capabilities.

  • Relatedness to others—to feel closely connected to other people and communities through the care you take for each other.

In relation to strengthening well-being, mental and social health, the theory proposes that experiencing the feeling of autonomy, competence, and relatedness to others, separately and as a whole, will lead to intrinsic motivation. Well-being, understood as achieving one’s full potentials, is closely related to intrinsic motivation (Ryan et al., 2006) versus psychosocial distrust, e.g., depression, anxiety, or behavioural problems (Ryan et al., 1995). The interesting thing about Self-Determination Theory is that it also has a social dimension, i.e. the need to have relationships with others, such as friendship relationships.

Udeskole is characterized by a variety of didactic approaches, for example, inductive, investigative and problem-based learning styles; tangible, concrete and practical working methods; student-centred teaching and collaboration. In light of Self-Determination Theory, it is relevant to ask how different didactic approaches, ideally, contribute to the fulfilment of the three basic psychological needs (for elaboration, see Bølling, 2018).

Does udeskole promote the fulfilment of the basic need of autonomy?

In udeskole, pupils are assigned a central role in their own learning processes. Through inductive, investigative and problem-based learning styles, pupils are invited to let their personal interests and initiatives guide the learning. Choosing a place of teaching in an udeskole setting can potentially have a major impact on pupils’ feeling of autonomy. Places in children’s everyday lives that are relevant and meaningful to them can be a source of inspiration and reinforce their interest (Bølling et al., 2017). Nature is a typically used environment in udeskole, such as seen in the TEACHOUT study. There are good arguments that natural environments support self-determination by stimulating investigative behaviour without expectations and pressures (Weinstein et al., 2009).

Does udeskole promote the fulfilment of the basic need for competence?

In udeskole, the work can be tangible, concrete and practical. These modes of learning are often contrasted with theoretical and academic methods used in the classroom at the school. In udeskole, more pupils are ideally given the opportunity to put other skills into play. There is a great social dimension to the need for competence through the feeling of being active, which in turn is linked to one’s interaction with the social environment. It is essential that the need for developing competence through udeskole may arise when pupils are given the opportunity to contribute positively to group work and thereby show others in the class community new sides of themselves and thereby be recognized in new and different ways (Hartmeyer & Mygind, 2016).

Does udeskole promote the fulfilment of the basic need for relatedness?

Collaboration in groups can be a starting point for forming new relationships. Knowledge of one another, physical closeness, and similarity are three pillars in forming friendships (Bølling et al., 2019a). In small groups, pupils have physical proximity. Group work will ideally mean that pupils work towards a common goal and shared interest. As we described above, there is also the opportunity for pupils, through udeskole, to experience new sides of one another, to feel understood and appreciated. Through this, similarities that pupils have not been aware of before are experienced—for example, similarity in interest, values and approaches to learning.

Several studies point out that the special feature of udeskole in relation to social relationships is not only pupil-pupils relations, but also strengthened teacher-student relationships. In udeskole, the teacher can potentially experience new sides of their pupils, and vice versa. There is time and space to talk to each other. It seems that pupils will feel more closely connected to their teacher (Mygind et al., 2018). The teacher also plays a significant role in the pupil-to-pupil relationships. Teachers have the opportunity to put together groups of pupils who do not already interact. The continued group work from school day to school day allows pupils to get to know each other better, thereby creating new peer relationships.

Transportation is often a necessity for getting from school to the park, forest, or library—e.g. by bus, bike or on foot. A teacher must also consider what role transport time should play, such as group work or informal socialization on the outbound and/or the return trip? In TEACHOUT, we examined, among other things, the importance of transport time for establishing new friendship relationships. Transport was of great importance for maintaining existing friendships (Bølling et al., 8,9,), which may be a significant contributing explanation for the fact that new friendships can be built through udeskole. However, informal transportation time in udeskole is also paradoxical. Although transport time is expected to help support a basic need for relatedness between pupils who already know each other, case studies also clarify the reverse side of transport. Transport time in udeskole can in the extreme case exclude pupils with weak attachment to others in class communities (Jørring et al., 2019). For pupils with a weak attachment, transportation time can mean increased social dissatisfaction because they do not necessarily socialize with others in class when on the move. Teacher should pay attention to this finding.

3 Summary of the TEACHOUT Study and a Critical Look at udeskole

The TEACHOUT studies have provided us with the most reliable knowledge to date about the expected effects of udeskole for pupils in general. The pupils who participated in the studies had, on average, a common level of mental and social health and came from families with a medium to high socio-economic background, understood as parents’ position in the labour market and their level of education (Christensen et al., 2014).

Pupils have different prerequisites for participating in teaching and thus different starting points for taking advantage of udeskole. For example, teachers’ motivation to use udeskole may be to give pupils from resource-poor families better opportunities to participate and learn (Fägerstam, 2014). Ideally, practical and tangible work is a special opportunity in udeskole (Hartmeyer & Mygind, 2016) and gives pupils—in particular boys—who may have difficulty sitting still in a classroom, a well-being boost which is also linked to more physical activity (see Mygind: Udeskole—Pupils’ Physical Activity and Gender Perspectives in this volume; Norðdahl & Jóhannesson, 2014).

There is much evidence that udeskole can foster well-being and academic learning through well-designed (outdoor) teaching, a clear teaching framework, and commitment, but it does not seem that all children prefer udeskole as a teaching method, although the vast majority express joy at udeskole. There are examples that academically strong pupils prefer teaching in the school classroom, where they find it easier to concentrate (Jørring et al., 2019). In continuation of the revised Danish school reform in 2014, several follow-up evaluations were conducted including the importance of relocation teaching outside the classroom. It is clear that pupils with special needs do not always respond as well to the many shifts and instability of the school day as udeskole can cause. Turmoil and lack of concentration are examples of the consequences that have been highlighted (Jacobsen et al., 2017). Some of the challenges registered among pupils with special needs can also be found in pupils in general.

In the TEACHOUT study, we found that when udeskole is organized with few hours, it does not appear to be beneficial for reducing hyperactivity and attention. Furthermore, it seems to have a negative impact on helpfulness and empathy (Bølling et al., 2019a). Longer- duration, e.g. a whole day with udeskole, seem to be more beneficial for several reasons mentioned in this chapter and therefore preferred.

The socio-economic starting point for the development of pleasurable schoolwork is a well-known phenomenon in outdoor teaching and learning (Dettweiler et al., 2015). In the TEACHOUT study, we found that the effect of udeskole was greatest for those pupils who already had the highest degree of enjoyment and pleasure with schoolwork. Future studies of udeskole should have an extra focus on whether udeskole especially favours pupils with the highest degree of intrinsic motivation for schoolwork, but also whether udeskole is beneficial for pupils from more or less resourceful families. Here, the teacher’s role is crucial (see Barfod & Mygind: Udeskole—Regular Teaching Outside the Classroom in the volume).

A small but positive effect

The TEACHOUT study of pupils’ well-being, mental and social health shows that udeskole conducted regularly for a year reinforces pupils’ desire for schoolwork. These findings are based on the fact that pupils were taught in udeskole equivalent to just below one sixth of the total weekly teaching time—mainly practiced in nature and green spaces and across school subjects. Social well-being, in terms of social network relationship to peers was positively affected—albeit to a modest degree—while helpfulness and empathy were strengthened.

In other words, udeskole emerges as a strong proposition of a teaching method that generally strengthens the well-being and health of pupils, but also that pupils with special needs are challenged when teaching is moved outside the classroom and school buildings. Some pupils are challenged by the possibility to concentrate. In order for udeskole to play a role in school life, it is important for teachers to become acquainted with the mental and social importance of udeskole in teacher education or through continuing education courses in order to experience how learning and health can be embodied in well-designed and structured regular outdoor teaching and learning sessions. In general, parents are very positive about udeskole. However, udeskole teachers point out that especially support from schools’ management and colleagues is crucial to maintain commitment to weekly or bi-weekly work outside the classroom (Mygind et al., 2018).

Research of udeskole does not end with the results from the TEAHCOUT study. In fact, this is just the beginning of more evidence-based conclusions about udeskole. Based on the intervention and research design of the TEACHOUT study, the next large-scale udeskole-study sees the light of day. The Danish Novo Nordisk Foundation have recently granted 1 mil. EURO for the realisation of the MOVEOUT study (www.moveoutstudy.dk, accessed 31/058/2021) which includes 30 Danish schools. With an increased attention to pupils’ physical activity in udeskole, the MOVEOUT study investigates the effect of one year of weekly use of udeskole on pupils’ movement behaviours, academic motivation, well-being, and academic performance. In addition, it is explored which pedagogical activities cause the effects.

Recommended Further Reading

  1. 1.

    Becker, C., Lauterbach, G., Spengler, S., Dettweiler, U. & Mess, F. (2017). Ef-fects of Regular Classes in Outdoor Education Settings: A Systematic Review on Students’ Learning, Social and Health Dimensions. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 14, 485. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14050485

  2. 2.

    Dettweiler, U., Lauterbach, G., Becker, C., Ünlü, A., Gschrey, B. (2015). Investigating the motivational behavior of pupils during outdoor science teaching within self-determination theory. Front. Psychol. 6, 125. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00125

  3. 3.

    Bentsen, P., Stevenson, M. P., Mygind, E. & Barfod, K. S. (2018). Udeskole: education outside the classroom in a Danish context. In M. T. Huang & Y. C. Jade Ho (eds.), The Budding and Blooming of Outdoor Education in Diverse Global Contexts (pp. 81–114). National Academy for Educational Research. Outdoor Education Research Office Book Series 3. https://www.naer.edu.tw/files/11-1000-981.php.