Abstract
The world production of corn-bioethanol is currently led by the United States, followed by China and Brazil. As a starchy material, corn grains must pass through different pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis, which have an impact on final biofuel costs. In addition, a balance between the use of corn grains and their subproducts for food and feed and biofuels production has to be found. The analysis of economic and environmental impacts of bioethanol processes that affect global food prices and land use may also be conducted. During corn bioethanol production some co-products are generated, mainly dried distillers’ grains with solubles (DDGS), but also other minor products. In fact, there is a great tendency to develop bioethanol processes’ production integrated with the generation of other bioproducts in biorefineries so as to close the production cycle under the zero-waste point of view. With these facts in mind, this chapter presents the current situation and main advancements of the corn-bioethanol production research and innovation. Important aspects including the different steps of corn pretreatment, starch enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation technologies, strain improvement, and valorization of different generated effluents for medium-to-high value bioproducts’ production are described.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahn JH, Sang BI, Um Y (2011) Butanol production from thin stillage using Clostridium pasteurianum. Bioresour Technol 102(7):4934–4937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.01.046
Alotaibi KD, Schoenau JJ, Hao X (2014) Fertilizer potential of thin stillage from wheat-based ethanol production. Bioenergy Res 7(4):1421–1429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-014-9473-1
Argyros A, Barret T (2014) Métodos Para Regular O Metabolismo De Nitrogênio Durante A Produção De Etanol A Partir De Milho Por Cepas De Leveduras Metabolicamente Modificadas Geneticamente
Arora A, Dien BS, Belyea RL, Singh V, Tumbleson ME, Rausch KD (2010) Heat transfer fouling characteristics of microfiltered thin stillage from the dry grind process. Bioresour Technol 101(16):6521–6527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.077
Barros S, Woody K (2020) Corn ethanol production booms in Brazil
Beigbeder J, Boboescu I, Lavoie J (2019) Thin stillage treatment and co-production of bio-commodities through finely tuned Chlorella vulgaris cultivation. J Clean Prod 216:257–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.111
Białas W, Szymanowska D, Grajek W (2010) Fuel ethanol production from granular corn starch using Saccharomyces cerevisiae in a long term repeated SSF process with full stillage recycling. Bioresour Technol 101:3126–3131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.12.090
Bioethanol Market Global Forecast to 2025 | MarketsandMarkets (2021). https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/bioethanol-market-131222570.html. Accessed 26 Sep 2021
Choonut A, Yunu T, Pichid N, Sangkharak K (2015) Ethanol production from reused liquid stillage. Elsevier, New York
Cox BR (2018) Asphalt binder used in paving composition, comprises a bitumen and a post-fermentation distillers maize oil
Cripwell RA, Rose SH, Favaro L, van Zyl WH (2019) Construction of industrial Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains for the efficient consolidated bioprocessing of raw starch. Biotechnol Biofuels 12(1):201. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-019-1541-5
Djukić-Vuković AP, Mojović LV, Vukašinović-Sekulić MS, Nikolić SB, Pejin JD (2013) Integrated production of lactic acid and biomass on distillery stillage. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 36(9):1157–1164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00449-012-0842-x
Erickson GE, Klopfenstein TJ, Adams DC, Rasby RJ (2005) Corn processing co-products manual
Eskicioglu C, Kennedy KJ, Marin J, Strehler B (2011) Anaerobic digestion of whole stillage from dry-grind corn ethanol plant under mesophilic and thermophilic conditions. Bioresour Technol 102(2):1079–1086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.08.061
Eubia (2021) Bioethanol. In: European Biomass Industry Association. https://www.eubia.org/cms/wiki-biomass/biofuels/bioethanol/. Accessed 26 Sep 2021
Fang L, Wang T, Lamsal B (2015) Synergistic effect of surfactants and silica nanoparticles on oil recovery from condensed corn distillers solubles (CCDS). Ind Crop Prod 77:553–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.09.031
Favaro L, Jansen T, van Zyl WH (2019) Exploring industrial and natural Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains for the bio-based economy from biomass: the case of bioethanol. Crit Rev Biotechnol 39:800–816
Fincan SA, Özdemir S, Karakaya A, Enez B, Mustafov SD, Ulutaş MS, Şen F (2021) Purification and characterization of thermostable α-amylase produced from Bacillus licheniformis So-B3 and its potential in hydrolyzing raw starch. Life Sci 264(May 2020):1–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118639
Fortney NW, Hanson NJ, Rosa PRF, Donohue TJ, Noguera DR (2021) Diverse profile of fermentation byproducts from thin stillage. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 9:1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2021.695306
García-Cubero R, Moreno-Fernández J, García-González M (2018) Potential of Chlorella vulgaris to abate flue gas. Waste Biomass Valorization 9(11):2015–2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-017-9987-9
Godoy A (2017) Processo de reaproveitamento de biomassa de levedo, com separação de sólidos antes da destilação e recuperação de etanol do bolo úmido, na integração de fermentações alcoólicas de cana e substratos amiláceos
Greetham D, Saleh ZA, Du C (2019) Exploring the tolerance of marine yeast to inhibitory compounds for improving bioethanol production. Sustain Energy Fuels. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9se00029a
Gyenge L, Ráduly B, Barrera R, Font X, Lányi S, Ábrahám B (2013) Efficiency of biogas production from corn bioethanol by-products using different inocula. In: 4th International Youth Conference Energy (IYCE). https://doi.org/10.1109/IYCE20136604171
Ho SH, Chen CY, Chang JS (2012) Effect of light intensity and nitrogen starvation on CO2 fixation and lipid/carbohydrate production of an indigenous microalga Scenedesmus obliquus CNW-N. Bioresour Technol 113:244–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.11.133
Hoekman SK, Broch A, Liu X (2018) Environmental implications of higher ethanol production and use in the U.S.: a literature review. Part I – Impacts on water, soil, and air quality. Renew Sust Energ Rev 81:3140–3158
Hsieh C, Hsu TH, Yang FC (2005) Production of polysaccharides of Ganoderma lucidum (CCRC36021) by reusing thin stillage. Process Biochem 40(2):909–916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2004.02.004
Huang H, Li X, Li G, Yu Y (2015) New mutant cellulose exoglucanases CBH I useful for producing a viscosity reducing agent for corn fuel ethanol fermentation
Huang L, Tan H, Zhang C, Li Q, Liu Q (2021) Starch biosynthesis in cereal endosperms : an updated review over the last decade. Plant Commun 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xplc.2021.100237
ICDA (2020) Maps and data - global ethanol production by country or region. https://afdc.energy.gov/data/10331
Jacob-Lopes E, Scoparo CHG, Franco TT (2008) Rates of CO2 removal by Aphanothece microscopica Nägeli in tubular photobioreactors. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif 47(8):1365–1373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2007.06.004
Jetti KD, Gns RR, Garlapati D, Nammi SK (2019) Improved ethanol productivity and ethanol tolerance through genome shuffling of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia stipitis. Int Microbiol 22:247–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10123-018-00044-2
Johnston DB, McAloon AJ (2014) Protease increases fermentation rate and ethanol yield in dry-grind ethanol production. Bioresour Technol 154:18–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.11.043
Karp SG, Medina JDC, Letti LAJ, Woiciechowski AL, Carvalho JC, Schmitt CC, Penha RO, Kumlehn GS, Soccol CR (2021) Bioeconomy and biofuels: the case of sugarcane ethanol in Brazil. Biofuels Bioprod Biorefin 15(3):899–912. https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.2195
Khatun MM, Yu X, Kondo A et al (2017) Improved ethanol production at high temperature by consolidated bioprocessing using Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain engineered with artificial zinc finger protein. Bioresour Technol 245:1447–1454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.05.088
Kim S, Dale BE (2002) Allocation procedure in ethanol production system from corn grain. Int J Life Cycle Assess 7(4):237–243
Kim Y, Mosier NS, Hendrickson R, Ezeji T, Blaschek H, Dien B, Cotta M, Dale B, Ladisch MR (2008) Composition of corn dry-grind ethanol by-products : DDGS, wet cake, and thin stillage. Bioresour Technol 99(2008):5165–5176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2007.09.028
Kohli K, Prajapati R, Sharma B (2019) Bio-based chemicals from renewable biomass for integrated biorefineries. Energies 12(2):233. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12020233
Kumar D, Juneja A, Singh V (2018) Fermentation technology to improve productivity in dry grind corn process for bioethanol production. Fuel Process Technol 173:66–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2018.01.014
Lewis S, Shepperd P (2016) Oil extraction aids in gran processing. US patent 9353332 B2, 2(12)
Li J, Vasanthan T, Bressler DC (2012) Improved cold starch hydrolysis with urea addition and heat treatment at subgelatinization temperature. Carbohydr Polym 87(2):1649–1656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.09.061
Li Z, Liu W, Gu Z, Li C, Hong Y, Cheng L (2015) The effect of starch concentration on the gelatinization and liquefaction of corn starch. Food Hydrocoll 48:189–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.02.030
Li C, Fang D, Li Z, Gu Z, Yang Q, Cheng L, Hong Y (2016a) An improved two-step saccharification of high-concentration corn starch slurries by granular starch hydrolyzing enzyme. Ind Crop Prod 94:259–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.08.049
Li P, Cai D, Luo Z, Qin P, Chen C, Wang Y, Zhang C, Wang Z, Tan T (2016b) Effect of acid pretreatment on different parts of corn stalk for second generation ethanol production. Bioresour Technol 206:86–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2016.01.077
Li Z, Wang D, Shi Y-C (2017) Effects of nitrogen source on ethanol production in very high gravity fermentation of corn starch. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 70:229–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2016.10.055
Li M, Li J, Zhu C (2018) Effect of ultrasound pretreatment on enzymolysis and physicochemical properties of corn starch. Int J Biol Macromol 111:848–856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.12.156
Li Z, Wang D, Shi YC (2019) High-solids bio-conversion of maize starch to sugars and ethanol. Starch/Staerke 71(1–2):1–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.201800142
Liang Y, Zhao X, Strait M, Wen Z (2012) Use of dry-milling derived thin stillage for producing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) by the fungus Pythium irregulare. Bioresour Technol 111:404–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.02.035
Lim LH, Macdonald DG, Hill GA (2003) Hydrolysis of starch particles using immobilized barley α-amylase. Biochem Eng J 13(1):53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1369-703X(02)00101-8
Luo L, Van Der VE, Huppes G (2009) An energy analysis of ethanol from cellulosic feedstock – corn Stover. Renew Sust Energ Rev 13(2009):2003–2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.01.016
Martinez-Burgos WJ, Sydney EB, Paula DR, Medeiros ABP, Carvalho JC, Soccol VT, de Vandenberghe LPS, Woiciechowski AL, Soccol CR (2020) Bioresource technology biohydrogen production in cassava processing wastewater using microbial consortia : process optimization and kinetic analysis of the microbial community. Bioresour Technol 309:123331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123331
Martinez-Burgos WJ, Bittencourt Sydney E, Bianchi Pedroni Medeiros A, Magalhães AI, de Carvalho JC, Karp SG, de Souza P, Vandenberghe L, Junior Letti LA, Thomaz Soccol V, de Melo Pereira GV, Rodrigues C, Lorenci Woiciechowski A, Soccol CR (2021a) Agro-industrial wastewater in a circular economy: characteristics, impacts and applications for bioenergy and biochemicals. Bioresour Technol 341(July):125795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125795
Martinez-Burgos WJ, Sydney EB, de Paula DR, Medeiros ABP, De Carvalho JC, Molina D, Soccol CR (2021b) Hydrogen production by dark fermentation using a new low-cost culture medium composed of corn steep liquor and cassava processing water: process optimization and scale-up. Bioresour Technol 320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.124370
McGrath C (2020) Biofuels annual
Miao M, Li R, Huang C, Jiang B, Zhang T (2015) Impact of β-amylase degradation on properties of sugary maize soluble starch particles. Food Chem 177:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.12.101
Mitchell MC, Divi UK, Vanhercke T, Petrie JR, Singh SP, Green AG (2017) Transgenic plant or part used for obtaining seed, extract, recovered or extracted lipid or soluble protein, and for manufacturing industrial product, comprises a first exogenous polynucleotide which encodes transcription factor polypeptide
Mohanty SK, Swain MR (2019) Chapter 3 - Bioethanol production from corn and wheat: food, fuel, and future. Elsevier, New York
Mojović L, Nikolić S, Rakin M, Vukasinović M (2006) Production of bioethanol from corn meal hydrolyzates. Fuel 85(12):1750–1755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2006.01.018
Mumm RH, Goldsmith PD, Rausch KD, Stein HH (2014) Land usage attributed to corn ethanol production in the United States: sensitivity to technological advances in corn grain yield, ethanol conversion, and co-product utilization. Biotechnol Biofuels 7(61):1–17
Myburgh MW, Rose SH, Viljoen-Bloom M (2020) Evaluating and engineering Saccharomyces cerevisiae promoters for increased amylase expression and bioethanol production from raw starch. FEMS Yeast Res 20(6). https://doi.org/10.1093/femsyr/foaa047
Naguleswaran S, Vasanthan T, Hoover R, Bressler D (2013) The susceptibility of large and small granules of waxy, normal and high-amylose genotypes of barley and corn starches toward amylolysis at sub-gelatinization temperatures. Food Res Int 51(2):771–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2013.01.057
Nasr NE (2012) Investigation of biohydrogen and biomethane production from thin stillage. Master Dissertation Civil And Environmental Engineering. The University of Western Ontario
Novozymes (2021) Novozymes’ history, our heritage. https://www.novozymes.com/pt/about-us/history. Accessed 26 Sep 2021
Pandiyan K, Singh A, Singh S, Saxena AK, Nain L (2019) Technological interventions for utilization of crop residues and weedy biomass for second generation bio-ethanol production. Renew Energy 132:723–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.08.049
Patel A, Shah AR (2021) Integrated lignocellulosic biorefinery: gateway for production of second generation ethanol and value added products. J Bioresour Bioprod 6(2):108–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobab.2021.02.001
Pietrzak W, Kawa-Rygielska J (2014) Ethanol fermentation of waste bread using granular starch hydrolyzing enzyme: effect of raw material pretreatment. Fuel 134:250–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.05.081
Puligundla P, Smogrovicova D, Mok C, Obulam VSR (2019) A review of recent advances in high gravity ethanol fermentation. Renew Energy 133:1366–1379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.06.062
Reis CER, Rajendran A, Hu B (2017) New technologies in value addition to the thin stillage from corn-to-ethanol process. Rev Env Sci Biotechnol 16:175–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-017-9421-6
Renewable Fuels Association (2020) 2020 pocket guide to ethanol. In: Focus Forward
Renewable-Fuels-Association (2021) Annual World Fuel Ethanol Production. https://ethanolrfa.org/statistics/annual-ethanol-production/. Accessed 15 September 2021
Sayedin F, Kermanshahi-pour A, He QS (2019) Evaluating the potential of a novel anaerobic baffled reactor for anaerobic digestion of thin stillage: effect of organic loading rate, hydraulic retention time and recycle ratio. Renew Energy 135:975–983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.12.084
Sayedin F, Kermanshahi-pour A, He QS, Tibbetts SM, Lalonde CGE, Brar SK (2020) Microalgae cultivation in thin stillage anaerobic digestate for nutrient recovery and bioproduct production. Algal Res 47:101867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2020.101867
Schwietzke S, Kim Y, Ximenes E, Mosier N, Ladisch M (2009) Ethanol production from maize. In: Molecular genetic approaches to maize improvement. Springer, New York, pp 347–364
Shahbandeh M (2021) Corn industry worldwide - statistics & facts. In: Statistica
Soto MF, Diaz CA, Zapata AM, Higuita JC (2021) BOD and COD removal in vinasses from sugarcane alcoholic distillation by Chlorella vulgaris: environmental evaluation. Biochem Eng J. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2021.108191
Sydney EB, Sturm W, de Carvalho JC, Thomaz-Soccol V, Larroche C, Pandey A, Soccol CR (2010) Potential carbon dioxide fixation by industrially important microalgae. Bioresour Technol 101(15):5892–5896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.02.088
Sydney EB, de Carvalho JC, Letti LAJ, Magalhães AI, Karp SG, Martinez-Burgos WJ, de Candeo ES, Rodrigues C, de Vandenberghe LPS, CJD N, LAZ T, Medeiros ABP, Woiciechowski AL, Soccol CR (2021) Current developments and challenges of green technologies for the valorization of liquid, solid, and gaseous wastes from sugarcane ethanol production. J Hazard Mater 404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124059
Szambelan K, Nowak J, Szwengiel A, Jeleń H, Łukaszewski G (2018) Separate hydrolysis and fermentation and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation methods in bioethanol production and formation of volatile by-products from selected corn cultivars. Ind Crop Prod 118(March):355–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.03.059
Tong Z, Tong Y, Shi YC (2019) Partial swelling of granules enables high conversion of normal maize starch to glucose catalyzed by granular starch hydrolyzing enzyme. Ind Crops Prod 140(August). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.111626
Tu R, Jin W, Han S, Fang ZX, Wang J, Wang Q, He Z, Ding W, Che L, Feng X (2019) Enhancement of microalgal lipid production in municipal wastewater: fixation of CO2 from the power plant tail gas. Biomass Bioenergy 131:105400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2019.105400
USDA (2015) Biogas opportunities roadmap progress report. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-12/documents/biogas-roadmap-infographic.pdf. Accessed 15 September 2021
USDA-EPA-DOE (2015) Biogas opportunities roadmap progress report. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/12/f27/biogas_opportunites_roadmap_progress_report_0.pdf. Accessed 15 September 2021
Uthumporn U, Zaidul ISM, Karim AA (2010) Hydrolysis of granular starch at sub-gelatinization temperature using a mixture of amylolytic enzymes. Food Bioprod Process 88(1):47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2009.10.001
Van Lancker J, Wauters E, Van Huylenbroeck G (2016) Managing innovation in the bioeconomy: an open innovation perspective. Biomass Bioenergy 90:60–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2016.03.017
Wang Z, Dien BS, Rausch KD et al (2019) Improving ethanol yields with deacetylated and two-stage pretreated corn stover and sugarcane bagasse by blending commercial xylose-fermenting and wild type Saccharomyces yeast. Bioresour Technol 282:103–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2019.02.123
West T (2011) Malic acid production from thin stillage by aspergillus species. Biotechnol Lett 33(12):2463–2467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10529-011-0720-7
Westerholm M, Hansson M, Schnürer A (2012) Improved biogas production from whole stillage by co-digestion with cattle manure. Bioresour Technol 114:314–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.03.005
Yu L, Chen X, Li Y, Liu Y (2014) Brew yeast and application of brew yeast to manufacturing alcohol through fermentation
Zabed H, Sahu JN, Suely A, Boyce AN, Faruq G (2017) Bioethanol production from renewable sources: current perspectives and technological progress. Renew Sust Energ Rev 71:475–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.076
Zangaro CA, Patterson R, Gibbons WR, Woyengo TA (2018) Enhancing the nutritive value of corn whole stillage for pigs via pretreatment and predigestion. J Agric Food Chem 66(36):9409–9417. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.8b01943
Zeng W, Zhang B, Jiang L, Liu Y, Ding S, Chen G, Liang Z (2020) Poly(malic acid) production from liquefied corn starch by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation with a novel isolated Aureobasidium pullulans GXL-1 strain and its techno-economic analysis. Bioresour Technol 304(February):122990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.122990
Zhang R, Ma S, Li L, Zhang M, Tian S, Wang D, Liu K, Liu H, Zhu W, Wang X (2021) Comprehensive utilization of corn starch processing by-products: a review. Grain Oil Sci Technol J. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaost.2021.08.003
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Murawski de Mello, A.F., Porto de Souza Vandenberghe, L., Valladares-Diestra, K.K., Amaro Bittencourt, G., Martinez Burgos, W.J., Soccol, C.R. (2022). Corn First-Generation Bioethanol Unities with Energy and Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS) Production. In: Soccol, C.R., Amarante Guimarães Pereira, G., Dussap, CG., Porto de Souza Vandenberghe, L. (eds) Liquid Biofuels: Bioethanol. Biofuel and Biorefinery Technologies, vol 12. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-01241-9_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-01241-9_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-01240-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-01241-9
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)