Abstract
This chapter is intended for the general reader wishing to understand the historical background and broader setting in which the American colleges of Istanbul, Robert College and its sister school The Constantinople Woman’s College, came into existence. It describes the earlier history of American religious and educational mission to the so-called Bible lands in the Near East, set against the backdrop of the larger developments that transformed and ultimately destroyed the Ottoman Empire. It briefly narrates the story of ex-missionary Cyrus Hamlin’s efforts to build a non-denominational college on Protestant principles, named Robert College after his sponsor, open to all the communities inhabiting the Empire. Finally, the chapter addresses the history of ethno-religious violence accompanying each attempt at constitutional reform and political equality that ended in the Great War, the Armenian genocide, Ottoman defeat, and the Allied occupation that set the stage for the Kemalist modernization of Turkey.
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Notes
- 1.
Orlin Sabev, Spiritus Roberti: Shaping New Minds and Robert College in Late Ottoman Society (1863–1923). Istanbul: Boğaziҫi University Press, 2014, 70-1.
- 2.
Cyrus Hamlin, Among the Turks. New York: Robert Carter and Brothers, 1878, 286.
- 3.
Hans-Lukas Kieser, Nearest East: American Millennialism and Mission to the Middle East. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010, 15-33.
- 4.
Kieser 2010, 27.
- 5.
See Carolyn McCue Goffman, Mary Mills Patrick’s Cosmopolitan Mission and the Constantinople Woman’s College. Lexington: Lexington Books, 2021.
- 6.
Ussama Makdisi, Artillery of Heaven: American Missionaries and the Failed Conversion of the Middle East. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008, 145.
- 7.
Molly Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1453–1768: The Ottoman Empire. Edinburgh University Press, 2015, 197-212; Ahmet Evin, “The Tulip Age and Definitions of ‘Westernization’”. In Halil İnalcık and Osman Okyar (ed.), Social and Economic History of Turkey, 1071–1920. Ankara: Meteksan, 1980: 135; Bekir Harun Küçük, Early Enlightenment in Istanbul. PhD dissertation: University of California, San Diego, 2012.
- 8.
Greene 2015, 210.
- 9.
For example, Jonas Jacob Björnståhl, Resa til Frankrike, Italien, Sweitz, Tyskland, Holland, Ängland, Turkiet och Grekeland, part 3, Stockholm 1780, 18-19, 56-58.
- 10.
Claude-Étienne Savary, Lettres sur la Grèce, faisant suite de celles sur l’Égypte. Paris: Onfroi, 1788, 359-61.
- 11.
For example, Stanford J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 1: Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2: Reform, Revolution and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Stanford J. Shaw, The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey. London: Macmillan, 1991. See also Donald Quataert, The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
- 12.
Greene 2015, 163-91.
- 13.
Aron Rodrigue, French Jews, Turkish Jews: The Alliance Israélite Universelle and the Politics of Jewish Schooling, 1860–1925. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990, 17-24.
- 14.
Erik Jan Zürcher, The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk’s Turkey. London: I.B. Tauris, 2010, 57-72.
- 15.
Ussama Makdisi, Age of Coexistence: The Ecumenical Frame and the Making of the Modern Arab World. Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2019, 7.
- 16.
For a critical discussion of the concept of Ottomanism, see Alp Eren Topal, “Ottomanism in History and Historiography: Fortunes of a Concept.” In Johanna Chovanec and Olof Heilo (ed.), Narrated Empires: Perceptions of Late Habsburg and Ottoman Multinationalism. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021: 77-98.
- 17.
Makdisi 2019, 64-74.
- 18.
John Freely, A Bridge of Culture: Robert College—Boğaziçi University: How an American College in Istanbul Became a Turkish University. Istanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitetisi Yayinevi, 2012 (2009), 7-8; Kieser 2010, 44-47.
- 19.
- 20.
Freely 2012 (2009), 41-49.
- 21.
Hamlin 1878; Cyrus Hamlin, My Life and Times. Boston and Chicago: Congregational Sunday-School and Publishing Society, 1893.
- 22.
Sabev 2014, 87-91.
- 23.
Freely 2012 (2009), 84-98.
- 24.
For example, Friedrich von Hellwald and L. C. Beck, Turkiet i våra dagar: Bilder och skildringar från alla delar af det osmaniska riket, part 1. Stockholm: E.T. Bergegrens bokhandel, 1878, 110-16 (German original: Die heutige Türkei. Otto Spamer: Leipzig, 1878); A. de la Jonquière, Osmaniska rikets historia från äldsta tider till kongressen i Berlin. Stockholm: C. E. Fritze’s k. Hofbokhandel, 1882, 575-81 (French original: Histoire de’l Empire ottoman depuis les origins jusqu’au traité de Berlin. Paris: Hachette, 1881).
- 25.
Makdisi 2019, 5-6.
- 26.
Kieser 2010, 51-55.
- 27.
Bruce Clark, Twice a Stranger: The Mass Expulsions that Forged Modern Greece and Turkey. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006, 118-19.
- 28.
Ronald Grigor Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”: A History of the Armenian Genocide. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2015, 105-40.
- 29.
Kieser 2010, 51, 57.
- 30.
For an analysis of Hamidian educational policies, see Selim Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimization of Power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909. London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011 (1998).
- 31.
Sabev 2014, 87.
- 32.
Sabev 2014, 90, 103-10, 266
- 33.
Catherine Boura, “The Greek Millet in Turkish Politics: Greeks in the Ottoman Parliament”. In Dimitri Gondicas and Charles Issawi (eds.), Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism: Politics, Economy, and Society in the Nineteenth Century. Princeton, NJ: The Darwin Press, 1999, 193-206.
- 34.
Hans-Lukas Kieser, Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2018, 65.
- 35.
Howard S. Bliss, “Sunshine in Turkey”, The National Geographic Magazine 20 (1909): 66-76, 71.
- 36.
Kieser 2010, 67-84.
- 37.
Zürcher 2010, 95-123.
- 38.
Kieser 2010, 64-67.
- 39.
Feroz Ahmad, “Unionist Relations with the Greek, Armenian and Jewish Communities of the Ottoman Empire.” In Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis (eds.), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Lands: The Functioning of a Plural Society. Volume One. The Central Lands. New York and London: Holmes and Meier, Inc., 401-34.
- 40.
Suny 2015, 165-73; Kieser 2018, 76-79. Raymond H. Kévorkian, “Zohrab and Vartkes: Ottoman Deputies and Armenian Reformers”. In Hans-Lukas Kieser, Margaret Lavinia Anderson, Seyhan Bayraktar and Thomas Schmutz (eds.), The End of the Ottomans: The Genocide of 1915 and the Politics of Turkish Nationalism. London: I. B. Tauris, 2019, 169-91.
- 41.
Hans-Lukas Kieser, Kerem Öktem and Maurus Reinkowski (eds.), World War I and the End of the Ottomans: From the Balkan Wars to the Armenian Genocide. London: I. B. Tauris, 2015; Hans-Lukas Kieser, Margaret Lavinia Anderson, Seyhan Bayraktar and Thomas Schmutz (eds.), The End of the Ottomans: The Genocide of 1915 and the Politics of Turkish Nationalism. London: I. B. Tauris, 2019.
- 42.
Kieser 2018, 151-210.
- 43.
For example, Donald Bloxham, The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005; Taner Akçam, A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility, trans. Paul Bassemer. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006; and ibidem, The Young Turks’ Crime against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2012; Fuat Dündar, Crime of Numbers: The Role of Statistics in the Armenian Question (1878–1918). New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers, 2010; Uğur Ümit Üngör, The Making of Modern Turkey: Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913–1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. For a brief bibliographical discussion, see Suny 2015, 367-74. For analyses of the related Assyrian massacres, see David Gaunt, Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia During World War I. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006; and David Gaunt, Naures Atto and Soner O. Barthoma (eds.), Let Them Not Return: Sayfo—The Genocide Against the Assyrian, Syriac and Chaldean Christians in the Ottoman Empire. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2017. For a discussion of the Ottoman Greek case, see Erik Sjöberg, The Making of the Greek Genocide: Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2016, 17-53. For a survey on Turkish historiography and recent public debate on the Armenian genocide in Turkey, see Alexandre Toumarkine, “Turkish History Writing of the Great War: Facing Ottoman Legacy, Mass Violence and Dissent”. In Hans-Lukas Kieser, Pearl Nunn and Thomas Schmutz (eds.), Remembering the Great War in the Middle East: From Turkey and Armenia to Australia and New Zealand. London: I. B. Tauris, 2021, 19-42.
- 44.
J. Mourelos, “The 1914 Persecutions and the First Attempt at an Exchange of Minorities between Greece and Turkey”, Balkan Studies 26:2 (1986): 389-413.
- 45.
See especially Gaunt 2006.
- 46.
Morgenthau diary, July 18, 1915, 279. Cited in Kieser 2018, 232.
- 47.
Makdisi 2019, 113-14; Zachary J. Foster, “The 1915 Locust Attack in Syria and Palestine and its Role in the Famine during the First World War”, Middle Eastern Studies 51:3 (2015): 370-94. For a discussion of Cemal Pasha’s governorship in Syria and role in the Armenian genocide, see Ümit Kurt, “A Rescuer, an Enigma and a Génocidaire: Cemal Pasha”. In Hans-Lukas Kieser, Margaret Lavinia Anderson, Seyhan Bayraktar and Thomas Schmutz (eds.), The End of the Ottomans: The Genocide of 1915 and the Politics of Turkish Nationalism. London: I. B. Tauris, 2019, 221-45. For a discussion of Cemal’s policies toward Arab nationalists and the Yishuv in Israeli historiography, see Yuval Ben-Bassat and Dotan Levy, “National Narratives Challenged: Ottoman Wartime Correspondence on Palestine”. In Hans-Lukas Kieser, Pearl Nunn and Thomas Schmutz (eds.), Remembering the Great War in the Middle East: From Turkey and Armenia to Australia and New Zealand. London: I. B. Tauris, 2021, 117-31.
- 48.
Erik Jan Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History. London: I. B. Tauris, 2009 (1993), 118-21.
- 49.
Henry Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau’s Story. Garden City and New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1918.
- 50.
Suny 2015, 266-67.
- 51.
The Governor of Diyarbekir, Mehmed Reşid, thus wrote a lengthy report, justifying his actions by referring to a (non-existent) Armenian conspiracy led by American missionaries. Hilmar Kaiser, The Extermination of Armenians in the Diarbekir Region. Istanbul: Bilgi University, 2014, 217. See also Kieser 2018, 238.
- 52.
Caleb Frank Gates, Not to Me Only. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1940; Mary Mills Patrick, Under Five Sultans. New York and London: The Century co., 1929; Mary Mills Patrick, A Bosporus Adventure. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1934; Guckert 1968, 78-112; Freely 2012 (2009), 198-229.
- 53.
The most sensitive topic of all, of course, is Robert College’s connection to the wartime annihilation of the Armenians. Gates admits in his memoirs that thirteen Armenian “servants of the College” were deported to the Anatolian interior and later perished, despite his efforts to save them, but gives no specific details of who these unfortunate employees were (Gates 1940, 217). The overall silence with regard to this issue in the memoirs led John Cecil Guckert to conclude that none of the Armenian students at the college were harmed (Guckert 1968, 93). More recently, Orlin Sabev has noted that the enrollment of Armenian students actually increased significantly in the academic year 1915–1916, at the height of persecution, lending credence to Guckert’s notion of Robert College as a sanctuary during the war (Sabev 2014, 173). Overall, this reflects the cautious approach of the CUP regime with regard to the Armenians in the capital, where foreign diplomats were present and the usual pretext about the necessary removal of an unreliable population from a war zone would fail to convince. However, Sabev also refers to an article by journalist Rober Koptaş, an editor of the Istanbul-based Armenian newspaper Agos, which gives details of “about ten Armenian students of Robert College, who were victims of the 1915 Ottoman policy towards the Armenian population” (Rober Koptaş, “1915’in Robert Kolej’in Kurbanları”, cited in Sabev 2014, 29, n59).
- 54.
Gates 1940, 190, 237.
- 55.
Caleb Frank Gates’ annual report for the academic year 1913–1914, cited in Freely 2012 (2009), 198-99.
- 56.
- 57.
Mary Mills Patrick, A Bosphorus Adventure; cited in Freely 2012 (2009), 207.
- 58.
- 59.
Zürcher 2009 (1993), 126. See also Taner Akçam and Ümit Kurt, The Spirit of the Laws: The Plunder of Wealth in the Armenian Genocide, trans. Aram Arkun. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2017.
- 60.
Guckert 1968, 108.
- 61.
“Co-Operation by Schools in Near East Is Planned”, Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, June 10, 1920, 17.
- 62.
Lynn A. Scipio, My Thirty Years in Turkey (1955). Cited in Freely 2012 (2009), 215.
- 63.
Michael Llewellyn Smith, Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919–1922. London: Hurst & Co, 1998 (1973).
- 64.
Zürcher 2009 (1993), 160-63.
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Sjöberg, E. (2022). Background: Robert College and Late Ottoman Society. In: Internationalism and the New Turkey. Modernity, Memory and Identity in South-East Europe. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-00932-7_2
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