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Neurobiological Approach to Stress

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Neuroscience of Stress

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Abstract

Stress may be provoked by environmental stressors, which are perceived and transmitted through sensory pathways to different neural structures in the brain, while internal stressors may be perceived as symptoms provoked by external stimuli or evoked memories. Sensory information is processed through the thalamus and different cortical areas to reach limbic structures, such as the hippocampus and the amygdala, which in turn activates responses mediated by the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Cognitive and emotional processing involves certain areas of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which in turn are interconnected with the hippocampus and the amygdala, therefore contributing to improve adaptive responses to stress. Different neurotransmitter systems are also involved in cognitive and emotional processing, therefore contributing to shape stress responses. Serotonin is mainly produced in the dorsal raphe nuclei (DRN), which participate in fear and anxiety in response to stressful situations, and the medial raphe nuclei (MRN), which participate in conferring tolerance to unpleasant, unavoidable and persistent aversive stimuli, such as those associated with chronic stressful situations. Dopamine is mainly produced in the substantia nigra (SN) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which project to different structures, such as the nucleus accumbens (NAc), which in turn have been associated with salience and valence, therefore participating in reward detection and anticipation. Norepinephrine is mainly produced in the locus coeruleus (LC), which projects to cortical and limbic structures, which participates in enhanced arousal and vigilance, which contribute to improve adaptive responses to stress. These monoaminergic systems are interconnected, therefore contributing to their reciprocal regulation, as well as different cortical and subcortical structures involved in the regulation of the ANS and the HPA axis. In response to stressful events, the HPA axis is activated by excitatory projections, targeting the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus, to produce and release CRF, which stimulates the synthesis of ACTH, which in turn stimulates the biosynthesis and release of glucocorticoids. Chronic stress may lead to persistent activation of the HPA system with the consequent increase in cortisol levels, which in turn participates in the interface between chronic stress and the origin and development of depression. Therefore, successful adaptive responses to stress may lead to the development of resilience and the acquisition of resources aimed at improving health conditions.

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    Gustavo E. Tafet

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Tafet, G.E. (2022). Neurobiological Approach to Stress. In: Neuroscience of Stress. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-00864-1_2

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