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The Daesh Genocide Against Religious or Belief Minorities in Syria and Iraq

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State Responses to Crimes of Genocide

Part of the book series: Rethinking Political Violence ((RPV))

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Abstract

Since the removal of Saddam Hussain, in 2003, and with the exception of the area governed by the Kurdish Regional Government, Iraq has largely remained an unstable and unsafe country. However, the atrocities did not start then. Atrocity crimes were common during Saddam’s dictatorship.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Human Rights Watch, Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds (1993). Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/47fdfb1d0.html.

  2. 2.

    See more at: Jonathan C. Randal, After Such Knowledge, What Forgiveness? My Encounters with Kurdistan (Westview Press, 1998).

  3. 3.

    Public Prosecutor v. Frans Cornelis Adrianus van Anraat, 09/751003-04, 23 December 2005. See more at: https://www.asser.nl/upload/documents/DomCLIC/Docs/NLP/Netherlands/vanAnraat_Judgment_23-12-2005_EN.pdf.

  4. 4.

    See: Iraqi High Tribunal (Second Criminal Court), Iraq, 1/ (C) Second/ 2006, Special Verdict, 24 July 2007. Available at: http://www.internationalcrimesdatabase.org/Case/1233/Al-Anfal/.

  5. 5.

    UN Security Council Resolution 688 (1991) [Iraq], 5 April 1991, S/RES/688 (1991).

  6. 6.

    S. Zubaida, ‘Contested nations: Iraq and the Assyrians’ (2000) 6 Nations and Nationalism 3, 363–382; Reeva S. Simon, Iraq Between the Two World Wars: The Militarist Origins of Tyranny (Columbia University Press, 2004).

  7. 7.

    See for example: R. Stafford, The Tragedy of the Assyrians (Gorgias Press LLC, 2006).

  8. 8.

    Max J. Joseph, The Simele Massacre in Iraq: A Legacy of Trauma and British Neglect (2018). Available at: https://deadmanmax.medium.com/the-simele-massacre-in-iraq-a-legacy-of-trauma-and-british-neglect-ae21d96afe4d.

  9. 9.

    R. Stafford, The Tragedy of the Assyrians (Gorgias Press LLC, 2006).

  10. 10.

    See for example: K. Husry, The Assyrian Affair of 1933. Volumes I and II (Cambridge University Press, 1974).

  11. 11.

    Elizabeth Ferris and Abbie Taylor, ‘The Past and Future of Iraq’s Minorities’ Brooking (8 September 2014). Available at: https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/the-past-and-future-of-iraqs-minorities/.

  12. 12.

    Ian Tuttle, ‘Iraq’s Christian Martyrs,’ National Review (8 September 2014). Available at: https://www.nationalreview.com/magazine/2014/09/08/iraqs-christian-martyrs/.

  13. 13.

    ‘Iraqi Christians’ long history,’ BBC News (1 November 2010). Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11669994.

  14. 14.

    Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, Iraq: The Situation of Ethnic and Religious Minorities (20 June 2013). Available at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2009_2014/documents/d-iq/dv/05unpodiqbriefingnote_/05unpodiqbriefingnote_en.pdf.

  15. 15.

    Frances Harrison, ‘Christians besieged in Iraq,’ BBC News (13 March 2008). Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7295145.stm.

  16. 16.

    Coalition Provisional Authority, Order Number 2: Dissolution if Entities (23 May 2003).

  17. 17.

    Chris Mitchell, ‘ISIS Swallowing Iraq: ‘They’re Killing Children,’ CBN News (9 September 2014). Available at: http://www1.cbn.com/cbnnews/world/2014/August/ISIS-Swallowing-Iraq-Theyre-Beheading-Children.

  18. 18.

    ‘Nearly All Gone. The conquering jihadists are evicting or killing Mosul’s last Christians,’ The Economist (26 July 2014). Available at: https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21608804-conquering-jihadists-are-evicting-or-killing-mosuls-last-christians-nearly-all.

  19. 19.

    Boris Johnson, ‘Bravo for Assad—He Is A Vile Tyrant But He Has Saved Palmyra’ The Daily Telegraph (27 March 2016).

  20. 20.

    UN Human Rights Council, the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, ‘They Came to Destroy’: ISIS Crimes Against the Yazidis, UN Doc A/HRC/32/CRP.2 (15 June 2016).

  21. 21.

    Aid to the Church in Need, Persecuted and Forgotten? A Report on Christians Oppressed for their Faith 2013–2015 (2015). Available at: http://www.acnuk.org/persecuted#countries.

  22. 22.

    The Global Coalition Against Daesh, Partners. Available at: http://theglobalcoalition.org/en/partners.

  23. 23.

    Maher Chmaytelli and Ahmed Aboulenein, ‘Iraq declares final victory over Islamic State,’ Reuters (online), 9 December 2017. Available at: https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-iraq-is-liberated/iraq-declares-final-victory-over-islamic-state-idUKKBN1E30B7.

  24. 24.

    UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, (13 August 2015) UN Doc A/HRC/30/48. 110–119.

  25. 25.

    UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, ‘They Came to Destroy’: ISIS Crimes Against the Yazidis (15 June 2016) UN Doc A/HRC/32/CRP.2.

  26. 26.

    Council of Europe Resolution 2091 (2016), (27 January 2016), 2; European Parliament Resolution 2015/2599(RSP) on recent attacks and abductions by ISIS/Daesh in the Middle East, notably of Assyrians, (4 February 2016), 2; John Kerry, ‘Remarks on Daesh and Genocide’ (speech, US Department of State, Washington DC, 17 March 2016); UK House of Commons, Daesh Genocide of Minorities Debate, Hansard, April 2016, Volume 608; ‘Australia Recognizes Crimes Committed By ISIS Against Assyrians As Genocide’ AINA, 2 May 2016; Canadian House of Commons, 42nd Parliament, 1st Session, Number 74, 16 June 2016; Assemblee Nationale, Resolution N° 3779.

  27. 27.

    After the fall of the former regime in 2003, individuals and armed groups used the power vacuum this created to further their own agenda. Over the ensuing years, sporadic incidents of violence turned into organized and systematic attacks. Slowly but surely the plight of religious minorities in Iraq began its journey from single attacks to organized mass atrocities, then to the ultimate crime of crimes; genocide.

    In 2011, the UK Border Agency published a report on the situation in Iraq. The report identified deadly attacks on religious minorities, especially during religious gatherings. This included kidnapping and murder, both crimes were carried out with impunity. Armed groups attacked Christian, Yazidi, and Shabak communities, labeling them crusaders, devil-worshipers, and infidels. Such labeling of groups with names like crusaders, devil-worshipers, and infidels is a clearly identifiable stage of genocide; dehumanization. In the same way, the Nazis labeled the Jews as vermin and the Hutu labeled Tutsi as cockroaches.

  28. 28.

    Corey Charlton, ‘Inside ISIS Sharia courts: Gay man sentenced to be thrown to his death was asked if he was happy with the verdict. ‘I’d prefer you shoot me’ he replied… then they threw him anyway’ Daily Mail (2 December 2015).

  29. 29.

    ARA News, ‘Radical ISIS group executes Iraqi man for being gay’ ARA News (23 July 2016). Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20170805055631/, http://aranews.net/2016/07/radical-isis-group-executes-iraqi-man-for-being-gay/.

  30. 30.

    S. J. Prince, New ISIS Execution Compilation Video Shows Gay Man Thrown from Roof (10 August 2016).

  31. 31.

    BBC, ‘Why my own father would have let IS kill me’ BBC (22 July 2015). Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-33565055.

  32. 32.

    Ibid.

  33. 33.

    Ibid.

  34. 34.

    See: Global Coalition against Daesh. Available at: https://theglobalcoalition.org/en/.

  35. 35.

    See for example: Reuters, ‘Iraqi PM Declares ‘End of War against Daesh’ in Iraq’ Reuters (9 December 2017). Available at: https://www.geo.tv/latest/171492-iraq-is-totally-liberated-from-islamic-state-iraqi-armed-forces.

  36. 36.

    UN Security Council, Twenty-sixth Report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team Submitted Pursuant to Resolution 2368 (2017) Concerning ISIL (Da’esh), Al-Qaida and Associated Individuals and Entities, S/2020/717, 23 July 2020.

  37. 37.

    It must also be considered that Peshmerga were the only security force in the region in August 2014. They maintained bases and checkpoints throughout Sinjar and have been defending the area for many months if not years. However, the events of early August 2014, have shown a different side of Peshmerga. In its report ‘They came to destroy,’ The IICoISAR summarised the abandonment by the Peshmerga fighters as follows:

    24. As they moved into Sinjar, ISIS fighters faced little or no resistance. Many of the Peshmerga reportedly withdrew in the face of the ISIS advance, leaving much of the Sinjar region defenceless. The decision to withdraw was not effectively communicated to the local population. No evacuation orders were issued and most villages were initially unaware of the collapse of the security situation.

    25. As word spread that the Peshmerga had left their checkpoints, a few ad-hoc groups of lightly armed, local Yazidi men mounted a very limited defence of some villages, such as Girzerik and Siba Sheikh Khedir, in an attempt to give their families and neighbours more time to escape. By daybreak, Yazidi families from hundreds of villages across Sinjar were fleeing their homes in fear and panic. They took little with them. Others were advised by Arab neighbours to stay in the villages and raise white flags over their houses.

  38. 38.

    UN Security Council Resolution 2379 (21 September 2017) UN Doc S/RES/2379.

  39. 39.

    Margaret Coker and Falih Hassan, ‘A 10-min Trial, a Death Sentence: Iraqi Justice for ISIS Suspects’ New York Times (17 April 2018). Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/17/world/middleeast/iraq-isis-trials.html.

  40. 40.

    See: Iraq: Penal Code [Iraq], No. 111 of 1969, July 1969. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/452524304.html.

  41. 41.

    See: https://indicators.ohchr.org/.

  42. 42.

    Prosecutor v Akayesu, Caso No. ICTR-96–4-T (Judgment, September 2, 1998) 496. See also: Sherrie L. Russell-Brown, ‘Rape as an Act of Genocide’ (2003) 21 Berkeley Journal of International Law 350; Reid-Cunningham, Alllison Ruby, ‘Rape as a Weapon of Genocide’ (2008) 3 Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal.

  43. 43.

    See: Nadia’s Imitative, Press Release.

  44. 44.

    See for example: Margaret Coker and Falih Hassan, ‘A 10-min Trial, a Death Sentence: Iraqi Justice for ISIS Suspects’ New York Times (17 April 2018). Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/17/world/middleeast/iraq-isis-trials.html.

  45. 45.

    Eric Stover, The Witness. War Crimes and the Promise of Justice in The Hague (University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, 2007).

  46. 46.

    Physicians for Human Rights, Building Forensic Capacity to Document, Collect, Identify, Analyse, and Preserve Evidence of War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity in Northern Iraq, Capacity Assessment Report (July 2017).

  47. 47.

    See for example: Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights, Prosecuting and punishing the crimes against humanity or even possible genocide committed by Daesh. Replies to questionnaire. Available at: http://website-pace.net/documents/19838/3115026/AS-JUR-2017-30-EN.pdf/2def016d-fc77-4bb7-823b-a57e113687ce.

  48. 48.

    Ibid.

  49. 49.

    Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights, Prosecuting and punishing the crimes against humanity or even possible genocide committed by Daesh. Replies to questionnaire. 56. See also: A. Schmid, Foreign (Terrorist) Fighter Estimates (ICCT: The Hague, 2015) 11.

  50. 50.

    Ibid.

  51. 51.

    UK House of Lords, Islamic State: Crimes against Humanity: Written question—HL14768. Available at: https://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/written-questions-answers-statements/written-question/Lords/2019-03-25/HL14768/.

  52. 52.

    Ibid.

  53. 53.

    Der Generalbundesanwalt, Festnahme eines mutmaßlichen Mitglieds der ausländischen terroristischen Vereinigung Islamischer Staat (IS) wegen des Verdachts des Völkermords u. a. (11 October 2019). Available at: https://www.generalbundesanwalt.de/de/showpress.php?newsid=856.

  54. 54.

    See for example: Mary Robinson, ‘Foreword,’ in The Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction (Princeton University Press: Princeton, 2001) 16.

  55. 55.

    Ibid.

  56. 56.

    Article 12(1) of the Rome Statute.

  57. 57.

    Article 13(b) of the Rome Statute.

  58. 58.

    UN News, Referral of Syria to International Criminal Court Fails as Negative Votes Prevent Security Council from Adopting Draft Resolution, (22 May 2014). Available at: https://www.un.org/press/en/2014/sc11407.doc.htm.

  59. 59.

    See: Article 41 of the UN Chapter,

  60. 60.

    UN Security Council Resolution 955 (8 November 1994) UN Doc S/RES/955.

  61. 61.

    UN Security Council Resolution 827 (25 May 1993) UN Doc S/RES/827.

  62. 62.

    UN Security Council Resolution 2379 (21 September 2017) UN Doc. S/RES/2379 (2017).

  63. 63.

    Ibid., 2.

  64. 64.

    Ibid., 2.

  65. 65.

    UN Security Council Resolution 2379 (2017) 5.

  66. 66.

    Ibid., 5.

  67. 67.

    UN Security Council, ‘Fourth report of the Special Adviser and Head of the United Nations Investigative Team to Promote Accountability for Crimes Committed by Da’esh/Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant’ (2020) S/2020/386.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., 113.

  69. 69.

    Ibid., 54.

  70. 70.

    Stefan Glaser, ‘The Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal and New Principles of International Law’ in Guenael Mettraux (eds.) Perspectives on the Nuremberg Trial (Oxford University Press: New York, 2010) 69; Guenael Mettraux, ‘Judicial Inheritance: The Value and Significance of the Nuremberg Trial to Contemporary War Crimes Tribunals’ in Guenael Mettraux (eds.) Perspectives on the Nuremberg Trial (Oxford University Press: New York, 2010) 602, Joseph B. Keenan and Brendan F. Brown, Crimes Against International Law (Public Affairs Press: Washington, 1950) 122.

  71. 71.

    78th Congress, 1st Session, S. Con. Res., House Calendar No. 53, [Report No. 2521], In the House of Representatives, 11 March 1943, Referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, 16 March 1943.

  72. 72.

    UN Security Council 2379 (2017) 9.

  73. 73.

    Resolution 2190 (2017), ‘Prosecuting and punishing the crimes against humanity or even possible genocide committed by Daesh’ PACE (12 October 2017).

  74. 74.

    Ibid., 6.

  75. 75.

    See: https://www.grants.gov/web/grants/search-grants.html?keywords=SFOP0005764.

  76. 76.

    Ministry of Justice, ‘Sweden to host expert meeting on ISIS tribunal’ (3 June 2019). Available at: https://www.government.se/press-releases/2019/06/sweden-to-host-expert-meeting-on-isis-tribunal/

  77. 77.

    Ibid., Preamble.

  78. 78.

    Alice Barnes-Brown, ‘Tamerlane’s Reign of Terror’ History of Wars (5 July 2018). Available at: https://www.historyanswers.co.uk/people-politics/tamerlanes-reign-of-terror/.

  79. 79.

    Michael H. Harris, History of Libraries in the Western World (Scarecrow Press, 1999) 85.

  80. 80.

    Ruth Schuster, ‘1009: The ‘Mad Caliph’ Destroys Jewish, Christian Sites in Fatimid Empire’ Haaretz (18 October 2016). Available at: https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-1009-the-mad-caliph-attacks-christian-sites-in-fatimid-empire-1.5450335.

  81. 81.

    Will Durant, Our Oriental Heritage (MJF Books, 1997) 283.

  82. 82.

    See for example: RASHID, ‘The Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Iraq as a Violation of Human Rights.’ Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/CulturalRights/DestructionHeritage/NGOS/RASHID.pdf.

  83. 83.

    Ibid.

  84. 84.

    Sigal Samuel, Sara Farhan, and Atoor Lawandow, ‘ISIS Destroyed Jonah’s Tomb, but Not Its Message’ The Atlantic (27 July 2017). Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/07/tomb-of-jonah-mosul-isis/534414/.

  85. 85.

    Lord David Alton, ‘The world must respond to the cry of Iraq’s Christians’ The Times (23 July 2014). Available at: https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-world-must-respond-to-the-cry-of-iraqs-christians-3jbpknm3g2s.

  86. 86.

    Ibid.

  87. 87.

    Steven Lee Myers, ‘ISIS Has Destroyed One of Iraq’s Oldest Christian Sites’ The New York Times (20 January 2016). Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/21/world/middleeast/isis-iraq-st-elijahs-monastery.html#:~:text=via%20Associated%20Press-,The%20monastery%20of%20St.,Iraqi%20forces%20in%20June%202014.

  88. 88.

    Anadolu Agency, ‘Iraq: Daesh “destroys historical church” in Mosul’ Anadolu Agency (10 March 2015). Available at: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/politics/iraq-daesh-destroys-historical-church-in-mosul/68300.

  89. 89.

    Anugrak Humar, ‘ISIS Destroys Iraq’s Iconic ‘Clock Church’ in Ongoing Attacks to Annihilate Church History’ The Christian Post (28 April 2016). Available at: https://www.christianpost.com/news/isis-destroys-iraqs-iconic-clock-church-attacks-annihilate-church-history.html.

  90. 90.

    Asbarez, ‘Armenian Genocide Memorial Church in Deir ez-Zor Liberated’ Azbarez (6 November 2017). Available at: https://asbarez.com/168519/armenian-genocide-memorial-church-in-deir-ez-zor-liberated/.

  91. 91.

    The Telegraph, ‘Destruction of Middle East’s heritage is “cultural genocide”’ The Telegraph (23 July 2015). Available at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/middle-east/articles/Destruction-of-Middle-Easts-heritage-is-cultural-genocide/.

  92. 92.

    John Hall, ‘Another blow to Christianity and civilisation: ISIS destroy 4th Century Mar Benham monastery in Iraq’ Daily Mail (19 March 2015). Available at: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3002530/Another-blow-Christianity-civilisation-ISIS-destroy-4th-Century-Mar-Benham-monastery-Iraq.html.

  93. 93.

    Reuters, ‘Christmas Revived in a Village Devastated by Daesh’ Gulf News (26 December 2018). Available at: https://gulfnews.com/world/mena/christmas-revived-in-a-village-devastated-by-daesh-1.61121053#.

  94. 94.

    The Guardian, ‘Islamic State Destroys Fifth-Century Monastery in Central Syria’ The Guardian (21 August 2015).

  95. 95.

    Helga Turku, The Destruction of Cultural Property as a Weapon of War. ISIS in Syria and Iraq (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018).

  96. 96.

    ICN, ‘Syria: Bishop Makes Desperate Appeal for Intervention from West’ ICN (1 June 2015).

  97. 97.

    Frank Gardner, ‘Iraq’s Christians “close to extinction”’ BBC (23 May 2019).

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  1. IBAHRI, London, UK

    Ewelina U. Ochab

  2. Parliament of United Kingdom, London, UK

    David Alton

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  1. Ewelina U. Ochab
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Ochab, E.U., Alton, D. (2022). The Daesh Genocide Against Religious or Belief Minorities in Syria and Iraq. In: State Responses to Crimes of Genocide. Rethinking Political Violence. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99162-3_5

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