Keywords

7.1 Introduction

Awareness of exhaustible forest resources is not recent in human history. In Western countries, it dates back to the late Middle Ages (Sereno, 2008). By the seventh and eighth centuries, resources had been reduced because of tillage to expand the agricultural land. In some phases from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, wide forest areas needed to be protected from overexploitation, and public authorities started doing so with laws enacted during the fourteenth century (Fossier, 2003). However, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, there had been a great increase of local statutes and agreements between communities and lords by which people intended to protect uncultivated areas (Provero, 2020). Signs of what we today would indicate as environmental damages were already apparent also in the North of Italy, but what was meant by protection was the equilibrium able to assure continuity of forest goods production, i.e., wood, acorn for grazing, and game (Delort, 1989). Loetsch and Haller (1973) claim that forest inventories started at the end of the Middle Ages when a shortage of timber supplies due to overexploitation forced people to plan the utilisation of accessible forest near towns and mines. These same concerns and information needs, postponed in time and enlarged to a national scale, led to the beginning of national forest inventories (NFIs) in the early 1900s. According to Persson and Janz (2015), there was a need for information concerning areas, topography, ownership, accessibility, volume and growth. This chapter reports INFC2015 statistics on some of the main variables traditionally considered by national forest inventories.

Measuring forest area has long been a necessary condition to estimate total values of assessed variables. Estimates were strictly based on the preliminary mapping of forests, because maps provided the forest area needed to upscale the mean values of variables estimated in different units of the forest (Loetsch & Haller, 1973). Such inventories were soon acknowledged to be inadequate for compiling national forest inventories (McRoberts et al., 2010; Tomppo et al., 2010). In modern NFIs based on probability sampling theory, areas are estimated like any other assessed variable. This is true for Total wooded area and, naturally, its components, such as Forest, Other wooded land, broadleaved or coniferous forest areas, inventory categories, forest types and subtype areas.

Correlated with air temperature, elevation also influences the distribution of vegetation indirectly, by conditioning the crumbling of minerals and organic matter decomposing in the soil formation process (Avena & Dowgiallo, 1995). Temporal statistical series on the distribution of vegetation types by altitudinal belts are also a valuable information source for evaluating adaptation to climate change. INFC estimates by altitude are produced for classes 500 m wide and for classes 300 m wide. This also allows for comparisons with both the first NFI (IFNI85) and some statistics by the Italian National Statistical Institute (ISTAT), which adopts the 600 m asl altitude as the limit for mountain territories.

Forest policy makers, especially the public bodies, certainly need information about the public and private forest areas for two reasons. First, it is reasonable to expect that by managing forests, public bodies and private owners pursue different objectives. Second, policies and regulations on forests may affect the rights on estates, and such information may help predict possible social and political consequences.

Producing statistics on growing stock volume and its increment have long been the main goal of NFIs (e.g., Breidenbach et al., 2020). In recent decades, the traditional interest regarding the economic value of timber volume has been complemented with its value as a carbon pool (cf. Chap. 12). For this reason, in addition to the growing stock volume, the aboveground tree biomass is estimated, and tally lists include trees smaller than in the past. Desired sustainable management, necessary to safeguard the productive capacity of forests, relies on regulating utilisation based on volume increment. This has also become important for monitoring programmes aimed at assessing the forests’ response to environmental changes (Dobbertin, 2005; Gschwantner et al., 2016; Solberg et al., 2009). When estimated in terms of biomass, increment provides a measure of the contribution of forests in removing carbon from the atmosphere. The role of NFIs in increment estimation is unique, because it is a variable almost thoroughly obtained through field surveys, by repeated measurements in permanent plots and by tree coring, rather than by remote sensing techniques (Gasparini et al., 2017).

With special reference to the inventory statistics presented in this chapter, crown coverage of trees is fundamental for assigning the sample plots to the NFI domain, given the thresholds of 5 and 10% coverage that is relevant for the adopted classifying system (cf. Chap. 2). Moreover, crown distribution allows for the descriptions of the stand structure. INFC2015 recorded the presence of crown levels to provide statistics on the vertical structure, distinguishing one-storied from two-storied forests.

Data on the silvicultural system, development stage and age class, the latter only for even-aged forests, are essential for making planning decisions and developing forest policies at a more general level. Estimates on quantitative variables by forest areas are particularly useful in making hypotheses on future forest condition under different management scenarios.

Forest understory, according to the INFC, refers to small trees and shrubs, the two components traditionally least considered by NFIs among those described in this chapter. DBH thresholds once adopted by NFIs were strongly oriented by a willingness to estimate wood or timber with current commercial value or approaching such a value. Measuring small entities not only allows for a more accurate assessment of the carbon stock in the woody vegetation, but it also allows for recording the presence of species that seldom exceed the threshold for being callipered.

7.2 Area and Composition of Italian Forests

Estimates of Forest and Other wooded land area and forest type areas are among the main results of the forest inventory. INFC provides area estimates for two inventory macro-categories, seven inventory categories and twenty-three forest types, the latter further divided into subtypes, at regional and national levels. The classification scheme adopted by INFC and the class descriptions are given in Chaps. 2 and 3, respectively, for inventory categories and forest types and for land use and land cover.

Table 7.1 shows the statistics on area estimates for Forest, Other wooded land and Total wooded area. Tables 7.2 and 7.3 provide area estimates for the inventory categories of Forest and Other wooded land, respectively. The Total wooded area in Italy is estimated to be equal to 11,054,458 ha, of which 82.2% is classified as Forest (9,085,186 ha) and 17.8% as Other wooded land (1,969,272 ha). Total wooded area covers 36.7% of the country area; Forest covers 30.2%; and Other wooded land, 6.5% of the country’s area. At the regional level, Forest cover varies considerably, going from 7.4% (Puglia) to 63.3% (Liguria), and it is above 40% in five regions (Alto Adige, Trentino, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Toscana, and Umbria). Other wooded land cover is around the national value in most regions, except in Sardegna, Basilicata and Calabria, where it is considerably higher (28.0%, 10.4% and 10.3%, respectively). Sardegna hosts approximately one-third of the entire Other wooded land area. Figure 7.1 shows the percent of country area covered by Forest and Other wooded land and the distribution of related inventory sample points across Italy, respectively.

Table 7.1 Forest and Other wooded land area and Total wooded area / Estensione di Bosco e Altre terre boscate e Superficie forestale totale
Table 7.2 Forest area by inventory category / Estensione delle categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 7.3 Other wooded land area by inventory category / Estensione delle categorie inventariali delle Altre terre boscate
Fig. 7.1
figure 1

Forest and Other wooded land in Italy: a percent of country area covered by Forest, Other wooded land and all other land uses, b distribution of inventory sample points of Forest and Other wooded land / Bosco e Altre terre boscate in Italia: a percentuale della superficie territoriale occupata da Bosco, Altre terre boscate e altri usi del suolo, b distribuzione dei punti inventariali appartenenti al Bosco e alle Altre terre boscate

By far, the most important inventory category of Forest is that of the Tall trees forest, which accounts for 8,956,787 ha, of which 35,836 ha are temporarily unstocked (Table 7.2). Tall trees forest includes land covered by trees higher than 5 m, and with a canopy cover of more than 10%, or able to reach these thresholds in situ, and where the predominant use of land is not agricultural or urban.

The same thresholds of canopy cover and tree height are applied to Plantations. However, they are distinguished by their usage in timber and wood production, being of artificial origin and subjected to intensive management; these might grow on agricultural land. Overall, Plantations cover 128,399 ha, and the highest regional percentages of this category are in Piemonte, Lombardia, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Marche and Sardegna (Table 7.2), where they represent approximately 2–4% of Forest area.

Other wooded land is mainly formed by Shrubs, which account for 1,168,776 ha, almost half of which is located in Sardegna. The inventory categories Short trees forest, Sparse forest, and Scrubland, overall represent 20.3% of Other wooded land area (Table 7.3 and Fig. 7.2). The presence of Short trees forest and Scrubland is often an index of difficult site conditions, due to poor soils or high winds, limiting the growth of tree, while Sparse forests may be a sign of spontaneous colonisation in progress or of degradation of denser stands. However, they might also represent potential natural vegetation at high altitude sites. By convention, all areas where the presence of tree and/or shrub cover was identified by photointerpretation but more detailed data could not be collected during the field surveys, were assigned to Other wooded land in the inventory category Not accessible or not classified wooded area. This category accounts for 20.3% of Other wooded land, at the national level.

Fig. 7.2
figure 2

Percent of area of Other wooded land by inventory category / Ripartizione percentuale delle Altre terre boscate per categorie inventariali

A broad classification of forests is that based on species group composition (Table 7.4), which is widely used to compile forest statistics in European and international reporting activities. Inventory sampling points were assigned to one of the classes of Table 7.4 based on the field assessment of the crown cover percentage by species group. Tables 7.5 and 7.6 give the area estimates by conifers, broadleaves and mixed forest for the inventory macro-categories Forest and Other wooded land, respectively. INFC analogous statistics are available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC for the inventory categories of Forest and of Other wooded land. Figures 7.3 and 7.4 show the percent of area of Forest and Other wooded land by pure broadleaves, pure conifers and mixed woods.

Table 7.4 Classes of pure and mixed conifers and broadleaves / Classi per il grado di mescolanza del soprassuolo
Table 7.5 Forest area by pure and mixed conifers and broadleaves / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per grado di mescolanza del soprassuolo
Table 7.6 Other wooded land area by pure and mixed conifers and broadleaves / Estensione delle Altre terre boscate ripartite per grado di mescolanza del soprassuolo
Fig. 7.3
figure 3

Percent of area of Forest by pure or mixed class of conifers and broadleaves / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie del Bosco per classi del grado di mescolanza di conifere e latifoglie

Fig. 7.4
figure 4

Percent of area of Other wooded land by pure or mixed class of conifers and broadleaves / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie delle Altre terre boscate per classi del grado di mescolanza di conifere e latifoglie

At the national level, pure broadleaves woods dominate both in Forest (68.5%) and in Other wooded land (53.9%); in the latter, the dominance of pure broadleaves is even greater (83.4%) if we consider just the areas actually classified for this attribute. Pure coniferous Forest accounts for 12.8% of the area and are concentrated in northern regions (Valle d’Aosta, Alto Adige and Trentino), where they characterise many Alpine landscapes, and in some southern peninsular regions and in Sicilia, due to coastal pine forests and to the presence of some mountain-Mediterranean conifer species. The class mixed conifers and broadleaves accounts for 10.1% of Forest area and 6.1% of Other wooded land area; it is more common in some northern regions (Lombardia, Trentino, Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia) and in Calabria.

A more detailed classification of tree species composition is that adopted by INFC and described in Chap. 2. Inventory sample points are classified based on the identification of dominant species in terms of crown coverage. The identification of forest type is essential for the assignment of points to the inventory strata. For this reason, the forest type has also been attributed to the inventory points not accessible but observable from a remote location whenever it was possible to recognize the dominant species. In these cases, however, it was not possible to classify the forest subtype as well as any other information on the characteristics of the forest cover. The class ‘not classified’ for forest type includes the areas that were deliberately not classified during the second national forest inventory INFC2005, because the survey protocol did not prescribe classification of forest type for temporarily unstocked areas, and these could not be classified during the survey in INFC2015.

Tables 7.7 and 7.8 give the estimated area of forest types for the inventory categories Tall trees forest and Plantations, respectively. The same statistics are provided for some of the inventory categories of Other wooded land in Table 7.9, at the national level, and in Table 7.10 for the category Shrubs also at regional level. Area estimates on forest types at the provincial level are available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC. Figure 7.5 compares the area of forest types in Tall trees forest at the national level. Four forest types account for more than one million hectares in Italy. They are, in order, Temperate oaks, Other deciduous broadleaved, Mediterranean oaks and Beech forests, which may be found in almost all Italian regions, except for Beech in Sardegna and Mediterranean oaks in the north-eastern regions. Four forest type areas are larger than one-half million hectares; they are Hornbeam and Hophornbeam, Chestnut, Holm oak and Norway spruce. The latter is found almost exclusively in the Alpine regions while the other three types can be found in most regions.

Table 7.7 Tall trees forest area by forest type / Estensione delle categorie forestali dei Boschi alti
Table 7.8 Plantations area by forest type / Estensione delle categorie forestali degli Impianti di arboricoltura da legno
Table 7.9 Other wooded land area by forest type, at the national level / Estensione delle categorie forestali delle Altre terre boscate, a livello nazionale
Table 7.10 Shrubs area by forest type / Estensione delle categorie forestali degli Arbusteti
Fig. 7.5
figure 5

Area of Tall trees forest types, in descending order / Superficie delle categorie forestali dei Boschi alti, in ordine decrescente

Figures in Table 7.7 show the variety of forest landscapes in Italy. On average, Italian regions host 13 forest types; only in the region of Alto Adige does one type (Norway spruce) account for more than 50% of the area of Tall trees forest. Only in three other regions are more than 40% of Tall trees forest represented by one forest type (Larch and Swiss stone pine in Valle d’Aosta, Mediterranean oaks in Basilicata and Holm oak in Sardegna). Area estimates on forest subtypes are available at national and regional level at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC. They can help to distinguish features linked to the frequency and ecology of most of the species. The list of subtypes distinguished by the classification scheme of INFC with corresponding CORINE biotopes and EUNIS codes are given in Chap. 3.

7.3 Distribution by Altitude Classes

Table 7.11 shows Forest area by altitude class, considering five altitude classes, each 500 m asl wide. Forest is distributed over a wide range of elevation, following the wide range of land elevation due to the orographic characteristics of the country. At the national level, 34.1% of Forest area is in the first class, i.e., up to 500 m asl, and 37.9% is in the second class, between 501 m and 1000 m asl. Forest area rates decrease progressively with altitude as represented by the remaining three following classes: 19.5% of Forest area is in the class 1001–1500 m asl, 7.5% is in the class 1501–2000 m, and 1.1% is above 2000 m asl.

Table 7.11 Forest area by classes of altitude above sea level (asl), module 500 m / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per classi di altitudine sul livello del mare (slm), modulo 500 m

Forest area distribution by elevation class is rather variable at the regional level. Figure 7.6 shows that some regions are marked by a more homogeneous distribution of Forest by elevation (e.g., Veneto, Lombardia, Piemonte, Abruzzo) while in others, Forest is mainly in a few classes (e.g., Toscana, Sardegna). This is also due, of course, to the distribution of regional land area along elevation gradients and explains why Puglia has 100% of its Forest below 1000 m asl. In some Alpine regions the percent of Forest area in the class 0–500 m asl is much lower than the national mean value: 0.8% in Valle d’Aosta, 1.8% in Alto Adige and 5.5% in Trentino. These are mountainous regions with a relevant part of their Forest at altitudes higher than 1500 m asl: 31.9% in Trentino, 54.8% in Alto Adige and 61.7% in Valle d’Aosta. Among non-Alpine regions, Abruzzo is the sole region with a relevant rate (12.5%) of Forest above 1500 m asl.

Fig. 7.6
figure 6

Percent of area of Forest by elevation class (m asl) / Ripartizione percentuale dell'area del Bosco per classi di altitudine (m s.l.m.)

Observing the distribution of Other wooded land by altitude class (Table 7.12 and Fig. 7.7), it is apparent that more than half of the national area (54.6%) falls into the first class, below 500 m asl, but that percentage is much higher in some regions of central and southern Italy: Toscana (72.5%), Sardegna (76.3%) and Puglia (83.1%). Southern regions, in general, host limited area of Other wooded land above 1500 m asl, except Abruzzo (13.5%), which is also the sole non-Alpine region with Other wooded land at above 2000 m asl (0.6% of regional value). Other wooded land above 1500 m asl is, hence, a characteristic of the Alpine regions and very high rates are found in Alto Adige (92.5%) and in Trentino (73.0%).

Table 7.12 Other wooded land area by classes of altitude above sea level (asl), module 500 m / Estensione delle Altre terre boscate ripartite per classi di altitudine, modulo 500 m
Fig. 7.7
figure 7

Percent of area of Other wooded land by elevation class (m asl) / Ripartizione percentuale dell'area delle Altre terre boscate per classi di altitudine (m s.l.m.)

Additional estimates concerning the elevation distribution of the inventory categories and forest types of Tall trees forest are available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC. All estimates produced by 300 m wide elevation classes are also available at the website.

7.4 Ownership

Ownership was classified considering two hierarchical levels, the first relative to the character of the property, private or public, and the second to the type of owner, as reported in Table 7.13. For the first level, in case of mixed property, only private or public was indicated, evaluating case by case if the function of the area was mainly of public or private interest.

Table 7.13 Character and type of ownership / Classi per il carattere e il tipo di proprietà

Tables 7.14 and 7.15 give the area of Forest and Other wooded land by private and public ownership, respectively; Tables 7.16 and 7.17 show the area estimates of Forest and Other wooded land by ownership type. Similar statistics are available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC also for the inventory categories of Forest and Other wooded land and for the forest types of Forest.

Table 7.14 Forest area by private and public ownership / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per carattere della proprietà
Table 7.15 Other wooded land area by private and public ownership / Estensione delle Altre terre boscate ripartite per carattere della proprietà
Table 7.16 Forest area by ownership type / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per tipo di proprietà
Table 7.17 Other wooded land area by ownership type / Estensione delle Altre terre boscate ripartite per tipo di proprietà

In Italy, 63.5% of the Total wooded area (Forest and Other wooded land) is private property, 32.0% is public property and 4.5% of the area was not classified for this characteristic. In Forest, the prevalence of private property is even more accentuated (66.4%), but the lower percentage of private forest in Other wooded land (50.2%) might also be due to the high portion of not classified area for this macro-category. A picture of the distribution of private and public ownership of Forest and Other wooded land in Italian regions is shown in Figs. 7.8 and 7.9 respectively. Private property of Forest prevails in almost all regions, except in Trentino, Abruzzo and Sicilia, and accounts for more than 80% of the Forest area in the regions Liguria, Emilia Romagna, Toscana, and Marche.

Fig. 7.8
figure 8

Percent of area of Forest by private and public ownership / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie del Bosco per proprietà privata e pubblica

Fig. 7.9
figure 9

Percent of area of Other wooded land by private and public ownership / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie del Bosco per proprietà privata e pubblica

For the macro-category Forest, the most common type of private ownership is individual property (79.0%), which covers more than 90% of the Forest area in Liguria, Molise, Campania, and Basilicata. Private property belonging to companies is significant in Toscana (19.8%) and Umbria (14.9%), while in Trentino and Marche, a good percentage of private Forest belongs to other private agencies (14.9% and 16.3%, respectively) (Fig. 7.10). Concerning public Forest, municipalities and ordinary statute provinces prevail (65.4%), followed by the state, the regions, and the autonomous provinces (together they account for 23.5%), while only 8.3% of the area belongs to other public agencies (Fig. 7.11). The division by type of public property varies considerably among the regions. Compared with the national situation, many regions in central Italy, and Sicilia are distinguished by a smaller rate of municipal and provincial property in favour of state property, except for Umbria, where the property of other public agencies prevails. The class other public agencies shows a considerably higher proportion than at the national level in Alto Adige and in Trentino.

Fig. 7.10
figure 10

Types of private ownership in Forest / Tipi di proprietà privata del Bosco

Fig. 7.11
figure 11

Types of public ownership in Forest / Tipi di proprietà pubblica del Bosco

7.5 Growing Stock and Increment

Table 7.18 shows the estimates on the number of living trees in the inventory categories of Forest; Tables 7.19 and 7.20 show estimates related to the forest types of Tall trees forest and Plantation. In Italian Forests there are almost 11.5 billion trees, 1264 per hectare on average. Trees number per hectare ranges between 1000 and 1500 in twelve regions; in four regions (Umbria, Marche, Lazio and Molise), there are more than 1500 trees per hectare (up to 1728 in Umbria), while in the remaining five regions (Valle d’Aosta, Alto Adige, Puglia, Basilicata and Sicilia), such a density value is lower and ranges between 578 (Sicilia) and 986 (Basilicata). The values by forest type indicate a predominant contribution of the broadleaved stands, with exceptionally high values in Hornbeam and Hophornbeam forests (2160 trees per hectare) and Holm oak forests (1937 trees per hectare). To some extent, such high densities can be explained by the silviculture applied in these two forest types that are mainly coppices for firewood production. In fact, to the contrary, the lowest tree number per hectare was found in the Cork oak forests (575 trees per hectare), in which low density and relevant tree size are pursued to ensure crown complete exposure to sunlight and obtaining planks of cork of appropriate size and thickness (Gambi, 1989).

Table 7.18 Total number and number per hectare of living trees by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro del numero di alberi per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 7.19 Total number and number per hectare of living trees by Tall trees forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro del numero di alberi per le categorie forestali dei Boschi alti
Table 7.20 Total number and number per hectare of living trees by Plantations forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro del numero di alberi per le categorie forestali degli Impianti di arboricoltura da legno

The number of trees, either total or per hectare, as an index of growing stock has limited value because size of trees may vary a lot. As a stand density index, tree numbers per hectare have little utility in natural stands and have been more frequently used in plantations (Avery & Burkhart, 1983) or in young stands (Bernetti, 1995). The number of trees per unit area is necessary but not sufficient to adequately describe stand density (Burkhart & Tomé, 2012), and must be complemented by further information, such as tree size, relative distance or stand structure (Avery, 1967).

Table 7.21 shows estimates on the basal area for the inventory categories of Forest. Table 7.22 shows the same statistics for the Tall trees forest types and Table 7.23 for the Plantations forest types. Basal area is more appropriate to give indications on the stand density because it is highly correlated to the growing stock; it has also the advantage of being calculated directly by stem diameter or DBH, a variable easy to measure with accuracy (e.g., Bueno-López & Bevilacqua, 2013; Di Cosmo & Gasparini, 2020). At forest types level, coniferous stands are marked by higher values. In fact, compared to the average national value of 22.1 m2 ha−1, all the coniferous forest types show higher densities, with basal areas ranging between 25.5 m2 per hectare (Larch and Swiss stone pine forest) and 43.0 m2 per hectare (Fir forest). An exception is the Mediterranean pine forest with 18.7 m2 per hectare. Among the broadleaved types, only the Beech (31.7 m2 ha−1) and Chestnut forest (28.0 m2 ha−1) show values higher than the national average and similar to those estimated for the coniferous types. The Hornbeams and Hophornbeams and the Holm oak forest types, rich in the number of trees per hectare, have relatively lower values of the basal area (18.2 and 18.6 m2 per hectare, respectively), confirming that trees are abundant, but the size is limited. The three forest types with highest values of total basal area are Beech (33,336,591 m2), Norway spruce (22,314,318 m2) and Chestnut (21,802,076 m2), that are marked by high density values and large areas in the country.

Table 7.21 Total basal area and basal area per hectare by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro dell'area basimetrica per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 7.22 Total basal area and basal area per hectare by Tall trees forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro dell'area basimetrica per le categorie forestali dei Boschi alti
Table 7.23 Total basal area and basal area per hectare by Plantations forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro dell'area basimetrica per le categorie forestali degli Impianti di arboricoltura da legno

Table 7.24 shows the growing stock volume for the inventory categories of Forest; Tables 7.25 and 7.26 shows estimates for the forest types of Forest and Plantations. Growing stock volume estimated for all Italian Forests barely exceeds 1.5 billion cubic metres, with an average value per hectare of 165.4 m3 (Fig. 7.12). In terms of aboveground tree biomass, they amount to little more than 1 billion tons (Mg), with an average value per hectare of 114.9 Mg ha−1 (Table 7.27).

Table 7.24 Total value and value per hectare of stem volume by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro del volume del fusto per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 7.25 Total value and value per hectare of stem volume by Tall trees forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro del volume del fusto per le categorie forestali dei Boschi alti
Table 7.26 Total value and value per hectare of stem volume by Plantations forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro del volume del fusto per le categorie forestali degli Impianti di arboricoltura da legno
Fig. 7.12
figure 12

Growing stock volume and aboveground tree biomass by region (X-axis was limited to improve readability; exceeding values are given in numbers) / Volume del fusto e fitomassa arborea epigea nelle regioni italiane (per migliorare la lettura, è stata limitata la lunghezza di barre molto lunghe e i valori reali sono indicati con numero)

Table 7.27 Total value and value per hectare of aboveground tree biomass by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro della fitomassa arborea epigea per le categorie inventariali del Bosco

The regions that contribute most to the overall growing stock of Italian forests, in terms of volume and biomass, are Toscana (10.4% of total volume and 11.1% of total aboveground tree biomass), Piemonte (9.8% of volume and 9.6% of biomass) and Lombardia (8.7% of volume and 7.9% of biomass). The minimum regional values are in Valle d’Aosta, Molise and Puglia, in which growing stock volume ranges from 1.0 to 1.3% and aboveground tree biomass ranges from 1.1 to 1.5% of the national totals.

Tables 7.28 and 7.29 show estimates on the aboveground tree biomass for the forest types of Forest and Plantations. Among the forest types, the significance of Beech forests (19.6% of total growing stock volume and 21.5% of total aboveground tree biomass) and Norway spruce (16.4% of volume and 12.3% of aboveground tree biomass) has been confirmed. Chestnut forest type is still relevant but to a lesser extent compared with the comments on basal area; Chestnut forest is still in third position for growing stock (10.0% of total national volume) but was surpassed by the Mediterranean oaks in the biomass (10.1% of total national value), due to the higher wood basal density. Figures 7.13 and 7.14 show the growing stock volume and aboveground tree biomass values, overall and per hectare, in the Tall trees forest types.

Table 7.28 Total value and value per hectare of aboveground tree biomass by Tall trees forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro della fitomassa arborea epigea per le categorie forestali dei Boschi alti
Table 7.29 Total value and value per hectare of aboveground tree biomass by Plantations forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro della fitomassa arborea epigea per le categorie forestali degli Impianti di arboricoltura da legno
Fig. 7.13
figure 13

Growing stock volume, total and per hectare, by Tall trees forest type / Volume del fusto, totale e per ettaro, per categoria forestale dei Boschi alti

Fig. 7.14
figure 14

Aboveground tree biomass, total and per hectare, by Tall trees forest type / Biomassa arborea epigea, totale e per ettaro, per le categorie forestali dei Boschi alti

Considerable differences between the total value and value per hectare allow for an understanding as to which forest types are the most widespread in Italy. The ratio between the growing stock volume (i.e., the volume of the stem and large branches and treetop up to 5 cm section) and the aboveground tree biomass (i.e., the volume of the stem, large branches, stump, small branches and treetop) of each forest type was previously used in the estimates provided by INFC2005 to calculate the Biomass Conversion and Expansion Factor (BCEF) (Di Cosmo & Tabacchi, 2011). This may be used to understand the biomass of stands when the only known variable is their volume. Small fluctuations of those coefficients after each NFI are expected because the sample of trees is not the same. For example, that ratio is size dependent within a species, the rate of species within a forest type is not constant, the rate of truncated trees is not constant and their biomass is estimated using a simplified method (Chap. 6). For this reason, we let users compute new BCEF based on the INFC2015 statistics. However, the Mediterranean pines forest type will show a coefficient behind the small, expected difference with the former; this is due to the novel use of volume and biomass functions used for Pinus halepensis, that were not available in 2005.

Estimates of the annual volume increments are shown in Table 7.30 for the inventory categories of Forest; in Table 7.31, for the Tall trees forest types; and in Table 7.32, for Plantations. The mean annual volume increment of Forest in Italy amounts to 37.8 million cubic metres, 4.2 m3 per hectare on average. Among the Tall trees forests (Fig. 7.15), the main contribution is due to Beech forest (15.5%), followed by Norway spruce (12.8%) and Other broadleaved forests (12.4%).

Table 7.30 Total value and value per hectare of annual volume increment by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro dell'incremento annuo di volume per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 7.31 Total value and value per hectare of annual volume increment by Tall trees forest type / Valori totali e per unità di superficie dell'incremento corrente di volume per le categorie forestali dei Boschi alti
Table 7.32 Total value and value per hectare of annual volume increment by Plantations forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro dell'incremento corrente di volume per le categorie forestali degli Impianti di arboricoltura da legno
Fig. 7.15
figure 15

Annual increment, total and per hectare, by Tall trees forest type / Incremento annuo, totale e per ettaro, per le categorie forestali dei Boschi alti

For totals at the national level, a main contribution is due to the broadleaved forest types, since each of these generally shows higher values that those characterised by conifers, although it is among the broadleaved that we found the minimum values (Cork oak and Other evergreen broadleaved forests, both contributing 0.6% of total volume increment). The four highest per hectare values were all in coniferous forest types (Fir, Norway spruce, Black pines and Other coniferous forests), ranging from 6.1 and 9.1 m3 per hectare and year. Among the broadleaved types, Beech forest contributes with 5.5 m3 per hectare and year, Chestnut with di 5.4 m3 per hectare and year, a very similar value.

7.6 Structure and Development

Stands structure and development are described through a series of variables referring to crown coverage, vertical structure, silvicultural system and applied silvicultural practices, development stage and age.

Assessment of crown coverage specifically for trees and for shrubs, on orthophotos and in the field, allowed each plot to be assigned into one of the following six classes: <5%, 5–10%, 11–20%, 21–50%, 51–80%, >80%, used for the INFC statistics.

The silvicultural system, classified by combining information on trees origin (from seed or suckers, or a mixture of the two) and adopted silvicultural practices, was recorded based on ten classes, described in Table 7.33. Even-aged coppice, coppice in transition to high forest, and even-aged high forest were classified as one-layer or two-layers stands to describe the vertical structure. The development stage was classified according to the classes shown in Table 7.34; in case of even-aged stands, age was assessed through the following year classes: less than 10 years, between years 11–20, 21–30, 31–40, 41–80, 81–120, more than 120 years. Silvicultural system and development stage were not assessed in Plantations, but the age class was considered. Data on these attributes was used to derive area estimates and estimates of the quantitative attributes of growing stock and increment by the silvicultural system, development stage and age class.

Table 7.33 Silvicultural system classes / Classi per il tipo colturale
Table 7.34 Development stage classes for the different silvicultural systems / Classi per lo stadio di sviluppo per i diversi tipi colturali

Tables 7.35 and 7.36 give the Forest area by classes of total canopy and tree canopy cover, respectively. Similar statistics are provided for the inventory categories Tall trees forest and Plantations and for the Tall trees forest types at national level at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC.

Table 7.35 Forest area by classes of total canopy cover (trees and shrubs) / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per grado di copertura totale del suolo (alberi e arbusti)
Table 7.36 Forest area by classes of tree canopy cover / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per grado di copertura arborea

Figure 7.16 shows the Forest area by classes of total canopy cover at the regional level.

Fig. 7.16
figure 16

Percent of area of Forest by total canopy cover class / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie del Bosco per classi di copertura totale

The largest portion of Italian Forest (74.4%) is marked by a total canopy cover higher than 80% and the total cover class of 51–80% accounts for 18.0% of Forest area. Less dense coverages are more frequent in Sicilia, Sardegna and Alto Adige (Table 7.35). The prevalence of dense or very dense crown coverages was also confirmed by considering only tree canopy cover: the percentage of Forest area with tree canopy coverage in the last two classes is, respectively, 21.8% and 62.7% (Table 7.36). Forest types marked by higher tree cover are Fir, Beech, Chestnut and Hornbeam and Hophornbeam forests; Cork oak, Other evergreen broadleaved and Larch and Swiss stone pine forests are the forest types with the lowest tree crown coverage (Fig. 7.17 and related table at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC).

Fig. 7.17
figure 17

Percent of area of Tall trees forest types by tree canopy cover class / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie delle categorie forestali dei Boschi alti per classi di copertura arborea

The following remarks on silvicultural systems and development of Italian forests refer mainly to Tall trees forest, which is by far the largest inventory category. Additionally, most attributes discussed later in this paragraph were not assessed for Plantations. Table 7.37 gives the area estimates of Tall trees forest by silvicultural system. Figure 7.18 shows the distribution of Tall trees forest area by groups of silvicultural system in the Italian regions. Nationwide, the area of coppice and that of high forest are approximately the same. However, the area percentage of the two groups of silvicultural systems differs considerably at the regional level. Coppice silvicultural systems cover more than 50% of Tall trees forest area in nine regions (Lombardia, Liguria, Emilia-Romagna, Toscana, Umbria, Marche, Lazio, Molise, and Puglia). High forests have greater representation in Alpine regions (Valle d’Aosta, Piemonte, Alto Adige, Trentino, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and Veneto) and in the two southernmost regions Calabria and Sicilia. The class undefined silvicultural system, which is marked by the absence of silvicultural activity or by only sporadic or occasional silvicultural activity, represents a relevant portion of Tall trees forest area in almost all regions.

Table 7.37 Tall trees forest area by silvicultural system / Estensione dei Boschi alti ripartiti per tipo colturale
Fig. 7.18
figure 18

Percent of area of Tall trees forest by groups of silvicultural system / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie dei Boschi alti per gruppi di tipi colturali

The most common silvicultural system is coppice with standards (29.2% of Tall trees forest area), followed by uneven-aged high forest (16.1%), even-aged high forest (15.1%) and undefined silvicultural system (13.9%) (Fig. 7.19).

Fig. 7.19
figure 19

Percent of area of Tall trees forest by silvicultural system, at the national level / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie dei Boschi alti per tipo colturale, a livello nazionale

Tables 7.38 and 7.39 give the estimates of Tall trees forest area by development stage and by vertical structure, respectively. Additionally, Table 7.40 gives the even-aged Forest area by age class. Similar statistics are provided for the forest types at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC. Figures 7.20, 7.21, and 7.22 show the percentage of coppice, high forest and special or undefined silvicultural system area by development stage. In coppice, regenerating and young stages together account for 10.6% of the area; in even-aged high forest regenerating-empty, young growth and thicket add up to 3.0% of the area. Although a difference between those two percentages was expected because development stages have different durations for coppice and high forest, early stage accounts for low percentages of area in both cases. Mature and overage stage accounts for 34.3% of the area of even-aged high forest or coppice in transition to high forest, and the overage stage accounts for 32.6% of the coppice area. Figure 7.22 on special or undefined silvicultural systems, which comprises specialised stands for secondary products and spontaneous vegetation like new forest stands on abandoned land, shows a higher percentage of young stands and a lower percentage of overaged ones compared to other silvicultural systems. This was in line with expectations.

Table 7.38 Tall trees forest area by development stage / Estensione dei Boschi alti ripartiti per stadio di sviluppo
Table 7.39 Tall trees forest area by one–layer and two-layer structure / Estensione dei Boschi alti ripartiti per struttura monoplana e biplana
Table 7.40 Even-aged Forest by age class / Estensione dei tipi colturali coetanei del Bosco ripartiti per classi di età
Fig. 7.20
figure 20

Percent of area of coppice by development stage / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie dei cedui per stadio di sviluppo

Fig. 7.21
figure 21

Percent of area of even-aged high forest by development stage / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie delle fustaie coetanee per stadio di sviluppo

Fig. 7.22
figure 22

Percent of area under special or undefined silvicultural system, by development stage / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie con tipo colturale speciale o non definito, per stadio di sviluppo

The one-layer vertical structure was found in 76.8% of the classified Tall trees forest area. The two-layers structure was found in the remaining 23.2% of the area, which accounts for 1,557,010 ha. Uneven-aged, irregular or structured high forest and uneven-aged coppice together, which are characterised by a multi-layer vertical structure or by different structural types on a small area, account for 2,219,995 ha (see Table 7.38).

Estimates of total values and values per hectare of growing stock volume and aboveground tree biomass, and of annual volume increment of Forest by group of silvicultural systems are given in Tables 7.41, 7.42 and 7.43, respectively. In those tables, Plantations are included in the class not classified silvicultural system. Similar statistics are available by forest types, at the national level, at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC. Figures 7.23 and 7.24 illustrate the national values on growing stock volume and volume annual increment for coppice, high-forest, special and undefined silvicultural system.

Table 7.41 Total value and value per hectare of stem volume of Forest by silvicultural system / Valori totali e per ettaro del volume del fusto del Bosco ripartito per tipo colturale
Table 7.42 Total value and value per hectare of aboveground tree biomass of Forest by silvicultural system / Valori totali e per ettaro della fitomassa arborea epigea del Bosco ripartito per tipo colturale
Table 7.43 Total value and value per hectare of annual volume increment of Forest by silvicultural system / Valori totali e per ettaro dell'incremento annuo di volume del Bosco ripartito per tipo colturale
Fig. 7.23
figure 23

Total value and value per hectare of growing stock volume by the silvicultural system / Valori totali e per ettaro del volume per tipo colturale

Fig. 7.24
figure 24

Total value and value per hectare of the annual volume increment by the silvicultural system / Valori totali e per ettaro dell'incremento annuo di volume per tipo colturale

Growing stock volume in high forest is about double that of coppice, both for the total volume and for the volume per hectare. The total growing stock is 905.4 million m3 and 466.0 million m3 for high forest and coppice, respectively, and value per hectare is respectively 241.0 m3 and 123.0 m3. As regards growth, the annual volume increment of high forest is much larger than that of coppice, both the total value and the value per hectare, which are 18.9 million m3 and 5.0 m3 per hectare, respectively, for high forest and 14.3 million m3 and 3.8 m3 per hectare, respectively, for coppice.

Tables 7.44, 7.45, and 7.46 provide the total values of growing stock volume and aboveground tree biomass, and the annual volume increment of Forest by age class. Similar statistics for forest types, at the national level, are available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC. Figures 7.25, 7.26, and 7.27 show the total growing stock volume, the total annual volume increment, and the percent annual volume increment by age class, respectively, in even-aged coppice and high forest.

Table 7.44 Total value of Forest stem volume by age class / Valori totali del volume del fusto del Bosco ripartito per classe di età
Table 7.45 Total value of Forest aboveground tree biomass, by age class / Valori totali della fitomassa arborea epigea del Bosco ripartito per classe di età
Table 7.46 Total value of Forest annual volume increment by age class / Valori totali dell'incremento annuo di volume del Bosco ripartito per classe di età
Fig. 7.25
figure 25

Total growing stock volume by age class in even-aged coppice and high forest / Volume totale per classe di età, in cedui e fustaie coetanee

Fig. 7.26
figure 26

Total annual volume increment by age class in even-aged coppice and high forest / Incremento annuo totale di volume per classe di età, in cedui e fustaie coetanee

Fig. 7.27
figure 27

Percent annual volume increment by age class in even-aged coppice and high forest / Incremento annuo percentuale di volume per classe di età, in cedui e fustaie coetanee

7.7 Forest Understory

Woody vegetation in the underlying layer was assessed by counting individual tree and shrub species growing between the forest canopy and the forest floor under the size thresholds for being callipered but higher than 50 cm. Counting was carried out using three classes of height and diameter (cf. Chap. 4). For tree species, total and per hectare estimates of number of individuals, aboveground biomass and content of organic carbon were derived by dimensional class and total. Similarly, statistics were derived for shrubs aboveground biomass and organic carbon by class of height and diameter. Counts of small trees and shrubs were processed separately and together to estimate total aboveground biomass and total organic carbon of forest understory woody vegetation (cf. Chap. 12).

Tables 7.47, 7.48, and 7.49 give the estimates of total and per hectare number of small trees by Forest inventory category and forest type. Analogue statistics by dimensional class and those on shrub species are available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC, together with the statistics on understory woody biomass and its stored organic carbon by understory component.

Table 7.47 Total value and value per hectare of small tree number by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro del numero totale di soggetti della rinnovazione per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 7.48 Total value and value per hectare of small tree number by Tall trees forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro del numero totale di soggetti della rinnovazione per le categorie forestali dei Boschi alti
Table 7.49 Total value and value per hectare of small tree number by Plantations forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro del numero totale di soggetti della rinnovazione per le categorie forestali degli Impianti di arboricoltura da legno

Figure 7.28 shows the total number of small trees per hectare in the Italian regions. Values vary from 1506 small trees per ha in Valle d’Aosta to 9539 small trees per ha in Molise. Differences are also due to the uneven distribution of forest types in the regions. Broadleaved forests are generally characterised by a higher number of small trees than coniferous ones. Among coniferous forests, pine forests show the highest values, which are close to those of the broadleaved types with limited number of small trees like Beech and Hygrophilous forests, but higher than the number in Cork oak and Other evergreen broadleaved types.

Fig. 7.28
figure 28

Number per hectare of small trees in Forest, by region / Numero per ettaro di soggetti della rinnovazione per il Bosco, nelle regioni italiane