Keywords

1 Introduction

In this chapter, we provide a glimpse into reading education in seven schools across five PIRLS countries. These schools proudly share their experiences and advice regarding reading education, specifically for students with a home language that is different to the language of instruction. With these stories, they hope to inspire teachers all over the world and contribute ideas for organizing reading education in their own classrooms.

We have selected five PIRLS countries from various parts of the world, where multilingual students perform relatively well on the PIRLS achievement test. In these countries, there is a moderately small difference in performance on the PIRLS achievement test between multilingual students and monolingual students. One or two schools from each country present how their teachers work on reading comprehension, specifically with multilingual students. The description of the school’s education in reading comprehension is supplemented with example lessons. These good practices can inspire teachers all over the world to strengthen their own lessons. For more information about the countries and their educational systems, reading curricula in the primary grades, and overall policies related to reading instruction, see the online PIRLS encyclopedia (Mullis et al., 2017). A more extensive version of this chapter can be found on the IEA website—https://www.iea.nl/putting-pirls-to-use/chapter-5.

Schools that contributed to this chapter are:

  • Colegio TĂ©cnico Profesional los Acacios in Chile

  • Donghe Elementary School in Chinese Taipei

  • Chesterton Primary School in England

  • Elmhurst Primary School in England

  • Bolnisi Municipality Vill Darbazi Public School in Georgia

  • Public school #2 of Akhalkaki in Georgia

  • Isaac Peral Primary School in Spain

2 Good Practices from Chile

Teacher Laura Marianjel Discusses Teaching Reading Comprehension at Colegio TĂ©cnico Profesional los Acacios

2.1 Integrating Reading Comprehension with Other Subjects

In higher grades, we work with the daily activity of doing “daily comments.” These are based on a set of short readings, which are connected to other subjects. For example, if in mathematics the students are working with measurements, then we might work with recipes. We read different recipes, their ingredients, and their respective measurements in grams and kilograms. Another example is, if they are learning about countries of America and their typical foods in history, in the reading classes we will work with a recipe for a typical meal from Venezuela or Brazil (in my case because I have students of those nationalities). A passage or text is read out loud every morning in front of the class, and boys and girls prepare a brief written comment. The text is analyzed, promoting the acquisition of new vocabulary, association with their own environment, interaction of experiences, etc.

2.2 Beyond Just Reading: Storytelling and Home Activities

In the beginning, the teacher guides reading. We implement an activity called “modeled reading” (lectura modelada), where the teacher reads out loud in front of the whole class. Then, one student will begin to read for the others. This is done using books with illustrations, but also by being storytellers. In this activity, the teacher can wear a distinctive costume or hat (e.g., a crown or a witch’s hat) to tell a story, or a guardian is invited to the classroom to dramatize a story.

Reading and comprehension are then encouraged using instructional texts that involve concrete materials, where students show their understanding by delivering a product such as an origami or drawing.

To work on vocabulary with students who speak a language other than Spanish, the same literacy process is used. They will learn more words by associating them with images and with examples about meaningful contexts in which they occur. To use the same example of the recipe, grade 2 students had to write a recipe that is usually made in their home, one they had made themselves, or a recipe that they like. With great enthusiasm, the children wrote recipes, but they also experienced them by cooking the recipes themselves and sharing photos and videos. This was particularly significant because cooking was their own idea: they wanted to go beyond simply completing or submitting the homework.

2.3 Acting Out a Story: A Classroom Example

One of the objectives of the reading class is for students to learn to demonstrate understanding of texts by answering explicit and implicit questions about them. Implicit questions involve a more complex skill for some students. A strategy that helps students to understand what is explicit and what is implicit, is through brief performances with narrations, improvised during the lesson by the teacher, using concepts or vocabulary from the texts read. This type of performance consists of the following:

The teacher walks around the room talking about what a child was doing one afternoon at home: “I’m going to look out the window to see if my dad arrives. I have to have my room completely tidied up before he gets home, because he can get angry if he sees a lot of clutter in my room.” After that, the students are asked about what the character did and narrated, indicating that this corresponds to the explicit information in the text (everything they heard and saw). Then, the students answer an implicit question, for example: How does the character feel prior to the arrival of the dad?

3 Good Practices from Chinese Taipei

Teachers Chin-Chu Kao, Meng-Chu Pan, Ting-Xi Zhu, Chia-Chia Hsu, and Zhi- Liang Yeh Discuss Teaching Reading Comprehension at Donghe Elementary School

3.1 Sharing a Multilingual Environment

The school includes speakers of SaySiyat, Atayal, and Hakka, as well as immigrant children who speak other languages. In addition to the curriculum formulated by the Ministry of Education, the school also provides opportunities for the students to know and respect each other’s culture. The school’s curriculum is a reading program based on multilingualism. Teaching is mainly done in the SaySiyat language (one of the indigenous languages in Taiwan), supplemented by other languages, such as Chinese and Atayal. Teachers integrate the texts with multicultural topics to encourage the students to have a good learning atmosphere and positive interactions with each other.

Grade 1 and 2 students have been exposed to the immersion learning environment of the SaySiyat language when they were in kindergarten. Therefore, they usually speak some simple words of SaySiyat at school. Teachers have conversations with the students using some simple SaySiyat and encourage the students to answer in SaySiyat. The school produces many picture books in the SaySiyat language. Students who are not familiar with the spelling of SaySiyat language might read slowly, or even have difficulty in reading. Hence, teachers have the students practice pronunciation first, which helps construct the foundation of reading. Then, teachers read the picture books with the students, and guide them to observe and learn from the picture books. There are a lot of websites related to ethnic languages, such as ethnic language E paradise (族語E樂園). There are abundant resources for the students on these websites, such as animated films, picture books, and so on. We hope that the students can learn their ethnic languages through reading. To speak more, the students sometimes practice using their ethnic languages to tell stories to their classmates during the morning meeting at school. If the teachers in other fields are from SaySiyat, they will give instructions in class, and have conversations with the students using some SaySiyat language in order to support them in getting used to bilingual circumstances. If English teachers also teach in other fields such as social studies, they will have conversations with the students by using some English words to make them familiar with English. We take the students with a different language and cultural background into account in our reading education. We combine teachers’ language specialty with the resources on the websites to let the students learn and comprehend the texts in different fields by using multiple languages and drawing on multiple cultures.

3.2 Growing in Reading Comprehension Through Interaction and Motivation

For grade 1 and 2 students, it is suggested that teachers let the students look at the pictures first, and then interact with them by asking questions, and finally talk about the texts. The students discuss the texts, and practice asking and answering questions for reading comprehension. The students learn from each other by expressing their opinions. It is also recommended that the students practice their thinking ability by reading more picture books and discussing them with their peers. Teachers must also know how to support the students’ preference for reading. For example, grade 1 and 2 students especially like to watch animated picture books. As a result, they express their ideas eagerly when having discussions. Teachers speaking in SaySiyat or English use complete sentences to ask questions or have conversations with the students. When they cannot understand the whole sentence, they try to guess the meanings from the context or keywords. That helps them not only to acquire ethnic languages, but also to apply the strategies of reading comprehension. It is suggested that teachers create interesting situations, interact with the students in lively dialogues, and have them say some simple sentences. The students will strengthen their learning motivation and use the language they learned when they can say some sentences. It is also recommended that teachers provide the students with multiple text types, including texts in different languages. Students are also encouraged to apply self-learning strategies as they comprehend texts in different languages. Furthermore, teachers teach the students how to evaluate the source of online texts and news, as well as to select what they need from the broad online knowledge to help themselves learn.

4 Good Practices from England

Deputy Head Victoria Linke Discusses Teaching Reading Comprehension at Chesterton Primary School

4.1 Reading in a Multilingual Environment

At Chesterton, all staff have received vocabulary development training, and we make sure that oracy is an ongoing focus of all curriculum areas. Every lesson starts with 10 min of vocabulary time, and the children are introduced to a new word each day. These words are displayed on the classroom wall and the children are encouraged to use them in their daily conversation and writing. We have a strong focus on the development of language and language skills for our children because we know that speaking and listening are crucial skills for reading and writing in all subjects. Where language could present a potential barrier, we ensure there are additional visuals in place and sentence stems to support the children. We promote the use of dual language books through our school library, where the children can freely select a book in multiple languages to share with their families at home. In addition, we use the school website as an alternative resource for families, where they can access online videos of our school staff reading books in English and a range of other languages.

4.2 Frederick Douglass: An Example of Reading Material that Connects to Students’ Experiences

In grade 6 (10–11-year-olds), the children learned about apartheid as their overarching topic for the term. In our reading lessons, they each had a copy of Fredrick Douglass’ biography. Frederick Douglass, an escaped slave who became a prominent activist, author, and public speaker, was a leader in the abolitionist movement, which sought to end the practice of slavery, before and during the United States Civil War. This topic and book were selected because it is a culturally significant period in world history, exposing many issues that our children at Chesterton can relate to and/or have a connection with. The teacher began by explaining why she had chosen this book and provided information about the author and other books that the author had written. This process is important because the teacher can model the selection process and generate enthusiasm to engage the class with the book. The class then began to disentangle the key features and purpose of a non-fiction text, so all children could access the text. The next part of the lesson focused on reading with fluency and, after an initial discussion around key vocabulary, the children took it in turns to read with a partner. This process was modeled to the children beforehand, so there was a clear expectation about how to support each other. Once the children had the opportunity to read the set pages, the teacher posed a series of questions relating to retrieval and inference, where the answers were discussed in small groups and then shared as a class. As the children were so engaged in this reading material and subsequent book talk, several of them chose to go to the library after school to select other books about Black History to take home and share with their families.

Teacher Katharine Young Discusses Teaching Reading Comprehension at Elmhurst Primary School

4.3 Expanding Vocabulary as the First Step for Multilingual Students

At Elmhurst, the overwhelming majority of our pupils speak languages other than English at home. This means that everything that we do at school has the needs of multilingual students at its heart.

Key new vocabulary is introduced carefully in each lesson before pupils are exposed to it through reading, both in KS1 and KS2. In KS2, strategies for clarifying the meaning of words are taught explicitly, and new words are explored in depth to ensure a full understanding of a word, especially those which can have multiple meanings. New vocabulary is identified in planning and taught explicitly in all subjects. We never assume prior knowledge of subject specific vocabulary, as our pupils are unlikely to have come across these words in the past. Grammar is taught explicitly to ensure that pupils know how to construct sentences that are grammatically correct in English. A key focus for us is the correct use of prepositions and verbs.

We also have a significant number of new admissions each year for whom English is a totally new language. For those pupils who arrive from overseas during KS1, pupils join the group most suitable for their stage of learning in phonics. For those who arrive during KS2, we usually provide small-group teaching with other pupils in a similar position to allow them to focus on learning to decode and expanding their vocabulary rapidly, with the aim that they are able to join the main teaching class within two years of arrival in the school.

We do not generally provide reading activities in home languages for pupils as part of our normal classroom provision, although for the more common community languages (e.g., Gujarati, Arabic, Bengali, Urdu) we have after-school clubs which are run by native speakers.

4.4 “The Malfeasance”: An Example of Modeling a Strategy for Reading Comprehension

In order to develop both clarifying and comprehension monitoring, I taught a lesson to a grade 6 group which focused on the fairly challenging poem “The Malfeasance,” by Alan Bold. I asked the pupils to first predict what the poem might be about, based only on the title. Pupils were then asked to read the text and explain what it was about. They were unable to do this as they had not monitored their own understanding. They were then asked to annotate the poem with their thoughts and questions. This was modeled for the first two stanzas. Pupils then continued to annotate the rest of the poem.

After this was complete, pupils were asked again to explain what the poem was about and to answer some questions about it. All pupils demonstrated a much better understanding of the text as they had been taught the strategy of text marking. Some pupils were also able to identify the moral of the poem.

5 Good Practices from Georgia

Teacher Sevda (Khalilova) Muzashvili Discusses Teaching Reading Comprehension at Bolnisi Municipality Vill Darbazi Public school

5.1 Teaching Georgian at the School

Georgian, the state language, is taught from grade 1 in minority schools in Georgia. At the elementary level, we start with teaching words using illustrations in Georgian language lessons. A student hears names of objects and is expected to logically match words with relevant pictures. These pictures are usually united under certain themes, for instance: “our yard,” “my family,” “school,” “farm,” etc. We assist students to memorize these words so that they can later use them to compose short sentences.

Repetition of the same thing helps students to memorize words better. Students enjoy asking each other questions, and teachers try to transform this interaction into games. For example, students impersonate different animals and ask each other relevant questions. They like this activity and gain affection towards learning through games. Such entertaining activities help students to remember many words. No less important is the application of proper gesturing when explaining words related to feelings and emotions. Those words that are difficult to express through illustrations, such as caressing, irritation, empathy, etc., are usually explained through gestures and body language. This helps students to enrich their vocabulary, which also facilitates acquiring the basic knowledge and skills fundamental to reading comprehension.

For the elementary grades (1–6) we select short texts, based on the words students have already learned. At this stage, it is necessary to start introducing new words as well. For homework, students are asked to make an illustration of a new word in a vocabulary workbook to facilitate better memorization of this word. Then they show their classmates their picture and describe it. The class is divided into groups of five students, where each group is given a separate word to draw. This method allows students to memorize several new words in a day if they rotate, so each group has to illustrate, for instance, five words. Afterwards, we put students’ illustrations on the walls. Finally, we ask students to make up new stories and invent new characters using several illustrated words. Students then encounter these newly learned words in a different context with new characters. We select texts that are well-adapted to the demands of a particular classroom. Namely, texts are selected based on the analysis of classroom needs, taking into consideration the readiness of students and the level they are at. The new text is read by the teacher. I read with pauses, simultaneously observing if students are listening with attention. While reading, I try to convey the content of the text with relevant emotions. Thus, the teacher assesses students’ ability to comprehend, asking questions such as: What do you think will happen next? How will the events unfold? How would you end the text? What would you do if you were in his place?

5.2 Integrating Reading and Writing in the Context of Natural Science

In our school, the subject of natural sciences has been taught in the state language for two years. Georgian language teachers and natural science teachers work together on the thematic texts that have been compiled in advance for the students. The Georgian language teacher teaches new words, instructing how to pronounce and write them correctly, use them accordingly in a sentence, and comply with grammar rules. We work together on the lexical definitions. Moreover, we also use short video stories to make learning about the subject interesting and fun. Afterwards, we ask students to write short texts based on the story shown before.

5.3 Texts for Different Levels

Our texts are divided into levels: low, medium, and high. Each level becomes more complicated as new, more extensive and compound sentences are added. Here we are allowed to apply the differentiated approach: every student requires an individual approach, and therefore books of different levels are used to guide us. Grade 1 students have access to special software enriched with relevant texts and assignments that have been pre-recorded on the laptops provided to them by the state. These resources are actively used both in the classroom and for homework. The texts used for upper grades are completely different from those used for the primary level. Texts selected for older students are more profound. A properly selected teaching approach, equal, with respectful attitudes towards the students, and the ability to listen and tolerate different opinions, creates respectful interaction between students and teachers, and simultaneously increases motivation to learn. Therefore, the student is no longer focused on summative, but on formative assessment, and becomes your ally in learning. The student becomes motivated and wants to learn, and this is an ultimate goal of every teacher. This is why I try to select a text that ignites students’ desire for analysis.

Teacher Shorena Tetvadze Discusses Teaching Reading Comprehension at the Public School #2 in Akhalkaki

5.4 Enriching Reading Lessons to Increase Reading Motivation

To make the learning process fun for students, lessons should be enriched with interesting and interactive methods. The more multifaceted and versatile the lesson, the more interest and responsibility are demonstrated by students towards learning. In this regard, increasing student motivation depends on the teachers. It is effective and productive to use the method “learning through playing and doing.” When planning the lesson and activities, teachers take into consideration students’ abilities, interests, and the fact that each student requires a differentiated approach. Consequently, we try to create an environment where all students are equally involved in the learning process. To achieve better results, both the teacher and the student must be equipped with a variety of resources that will be effectively and efficiently used in the teaching and learning process. Bringing books to life by introducing theatrical or on-screen adaptations of the text is an integral part of becoming a good reader. The application of role-play in the lesson process is no longer a novelty. This method, above all, helps to improve the ability to read thoughtfully and increases the motivation to read. Teachers and parents should acknowledge the fact that reading is fun and not a boring necessity. Teachers should ignite students’ motivation to read, by suggesting appropriate texts, organizing literary evenings in informal settings, and offering various encouragements, which will consequently transform students into good readers. We have created a suitable environment for refined and cultured readers in our school: a library, a readers’ club, active participation of parents, frequent visits by interesting persons, book discussions with students, performances, debates, and rewarding students when they improve their reading to increase motivation.

5.5 “Penguin Pepe”: An Example Reading Lesson

This lesson was planned for different age groups at the primary level. The objective was that students would be able to read a short text, comprehend it, express their attitude, make assumptions about the story, and write a simple text.

Before reading: To motivate students and introduce the topic of the lesson, I showed students excerpts from a cartoon about a penguin. I then asked the following questions: “What was the film about? Do you know anything about it?” Then I asked them to explain why I showed this excerpt and what our lesson would be about. I then showed students the auxiliary learning material, a book about “Penguin Pepe.” We contemplated the illustration on the book cover, and I informed students that we would be reading and discussing a text about a penguin. I introduced the topic and the purpose of the lesson to the students and provided information about reading strategies they would have to work with during the lesson.

During the reading: The second phase of reading aims to equip students with new knowledge and skills through actively working with the text. I started reading the text by reading the first part aloud. The text was then read by students through the application of different reading strategies, including continuous, pointed reading, reading with pauses, etc. During the reading process, through the application of different methods—thinking aloud, asking questions, making assumptions—I made sure that the students understood the text they had read. After completing the reading, we listened to an audio recording of the same text, which refreshed students’ memories and allowed them to further clarify the details and events given in the text. Afterwards, we went back to the text again, guiding students to understand the text better by asking additional questions. Students further explored the text’s details and were asked to fill in a table about the characteristics of the three animals which appear in the story.

After reading: The goal of the third phase is to guide students to use their knowledge and skills to discuss key issues, summarize, answer questions, or make an interesting creative product. Accordingly, after reading and processing the text, I asked the students to help the penguin to complete the sentence, “The elephant is…” and later drew a relevant illustration for it.

Evaluation: At the end of the lesson, the students evaluated the lesson, explored and discussed which activity they liked the most, whether they were active, whether their expectations were met, and which topic they would like to learn more about in the future. I used “the A-B-C review” to evaluate the students: students were asked to find a word from the text, beginning with the indicated letter, and write down what they had learned about it.

6 Good Practices from Spain

Teachers Imma Puig, Rosa Raya, Susana González and M. Roser Garcia Discuss Teaching Reading Comprehension at the Isaac Peral Primary School

6.1 Students with Different Language Backgrounds

First, it is important to differentiate students who come from a lower socioeconomic background or with limited cultural experiences from those who come from backgrounds of medium and higher socioeconomic status or with rich cultural experiences. The first group are usually students with knowledge of a single language, which is usually different from the language used at the school. This makes it more difficult for them to acquire other languages. In our school, they have to learn Catalan, Spanish, and English simultaneously. Students in the second group tend to have enhanced stimuli in their environment. For this reason, it is not too difficult for them to acquire a new language.

In both cases, we begin by working with them on basic vocabulary through individualized lessons or in “reception classrooms” during language classes. Teachers make a list of specific vocabulary to work on, and they learn most of the vocabulary through projects that they work on in the regular classrooms. Several digital materials are also used, as well as visual references (which are either our own or taken from the internet).

We do not work on specific texts in the language of the student. Although our school is sensitive to other languages, we only work in texts written in Catalan, Spanish, or English. In order to make everyone feel integrated and aware of diversity, we encourage students to share vocabulary in their own languages during day-to-day life in the classroom. Sometimes there are also activities organized for the families of these students to share idioms and vocabulary that is characteristic of their place of origin. In cases in which families do not speak any of the languages that we work in at the school, we ask for someone to collaborate as a translator.

6.2 An Example of Using “Visualizing” in the Text “The Never-Ending Story”

6.2.1 Before Reading

I guide the students through the following stages:

  • Connection: Today I will read you a fantastic story, but you have to close your eyes while you listen to it. What you will have to do is imagine where the characters are, how they are, and what the scenery is like.

  • Modelling: I have also been imagining things while I was reading. I was thinking: “How could I imagine this forest, and the trees…? How can I imagine the luminous sphere if it is a fire but there is a figure inside that is neither a man nor a woman…?” (I would be thinking out loud so the students could ask themselves the same questions that I was asking myself. Later on, with the help of the students in the classroom, I would draw what we have visualized together on the blackboard.)

  • Active participation: You will now read the second excerpt in pairs and you will have to imagine how the next scene will be. Ask each other questions; you can talk to classmates behind you and in front of you to expand your vision of the scene. Afterwards, you will draw what you have seen and imagined from the reading together.

  • Link: Finally, you will read the next excerpt and do what we have done before all together and in pairs, now individually. If there is any word in the text that you do not understand we can all talk about it to make its interpretation easier. Go for it, your drawings will be fantastic. You have to think that no one will do a bad job because what is important here is your imagination, how you are visualizing what you are reading.

6.2.2 During the Reading

The students will read the text a second time and will then write down everything that can help them later when they have to draw: words, expressions, descriptions, etc. They can still ask questions to clear up any uncertainty about the vocabulary. I will give a sheet of paper to each one of them, so that they can start sketching what they are seeing and start building the scene.

6.2.3 After Reading

Finally, once the drawings are done, the students will show them to everyone in the classroom. Together we will comment on the differences between the drawing that they are viewing and their own. Every student, when showing their drawing, has to explain what strategy they followed. How did they imagine it, what things in the text helped them draw it in this way and not another, etc.? In this session it is important that everyone can explain what they have visualized and how they drew it.

The fact that the texts are in two different languages, Castilian and Catalan, should not be a problem. It is done on purpose because we also work with this strategy when it is time to work on writing skills, which we do in both languages.