Abstract
Research on conservation efforts demonstrates that local community support is critical to achieving conservation goals. In this chapter, we highlight innovative approaches which are currently being taken in the Tarangire Ecosystem to combine access to secure land tenure rights with landscape scale access to functional heterogeneity, governed through both formal and informal institutions. Informed by the concepts of social-ecological systems and just conservation, this chapter begins by considering the recent history of natural resource governance institutions in the Tarangire Ecosystem, where traditional systems were matched to the social-ecological context of that time. We go on to discuss how modernisation has resulted in significant changes to these systems over time, with a focus on the ways in which changes in land tenure have resulted in a loss of flexibility and shifts in local livelihoods. We highlight how, in this context, land tenure rights can play a critical role in community-based conservation efforts in the Tarangire Ecosystem to benefit both people and wild animals. We follow this with a description of the ongoing process in the Tarangire Ecosystem to secure rights to land and resources through spatial planning at a local scale, and how this can be expanded to the landscape scale. Finally, we reflect on some of the challenges with such an approach, particularly given the significant social-ecological variability and uncertainty that lies ahead.
Etejo enkiteng’: “mikintaaya, nchooyioki!” – The cow said “do not lend me out, give me away!” sensu The owner treats their own property better
Kipury (1983:183)
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Notes
- 1.
Pastoralism encompasses both those who are directly dependent on livestock for their livelihoods, as well as, in a broader sense, the entire system that is built around this people-livestock culture and economy (Homewood 2008).
- 2.
Other communities, including Barbaig, Warusha, Mbugwe, Rangi and many others, also managed, or still manage, parts of this landscape. In this chapter we deliberately focus on the Maasai whose influence is the most geographically extensive over this area.
- 3.
Nicolay Vavilov describes biocultures as evolved husbandry practices and cultures sustained the health of the land for generations in the face of environmental perturbations and climate change.
- 4.
These histories are similar to those we have expressed in other published work (Brehony 2020) for other parts of what was considered Maasailand, which includes the Tarangire Ecosystem, up to central Kenya at its northern extent.
- 5.
Other research suggests that the swamp was indeed used in the past, not on a regular annual basis, but rather during the most severe droughts (Miller et al. 2014).
- 6.
This process happens for a number of reasons, not least of which is territorial and resource control (Scott 1998).
- 7.
In early 2021 the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority attempted to evict thousands of people in the name of conservation and there have been several violent relocations in the areas surrounding Serengeti National Park (Currier and Mittal 2021).
- 8.
These already exist in constitution and legislation, but not always in practice.
- 9.
In the initial implementation of Randilen WMA, empirical research by Loveless (2014) recorded conflicts in the villages of Naitolia and Mswakini. Subsequently, there were debates about the extent to which the implementation of Randilen WMA represented a community-based approach (Brehony et al. 2018; Lee and Bond 2018a, b). It should be celebrated that, based on the recent research presented by Raycraft (Chap. 6), community members themselves now report Randilen WMA as a “community-based” approach.
- 10.
Most land in Tanzania is held under Customary Rights of Occupancy. These are land rights exercised through the organs of local governance administration, Village Councils and Village Assemblies. “Customary lands are defined as ‘Village Lands’ in the Land Act (URT 1999a, b), and the Village Land Act (URT 1999b) provides the legal basis for management and governance of these lands. Village lands held through customary rights of occupancy may be apportioned to individuals or groups through Certificates of Customary Rights of Occupancy (CCROs), which effectively formalizes their rights to that land” (Lekaita et al. 2014).
- 11.
In Tanzania, according to the 1977 Constitution (URT 1977), a village forms the Local Government Authority and once registered under the Local Government Act No.7 (URT 1982), it is mandated to enter into agreements which benefit village members, on behalf of village members, subject to the consent of the Village Assembly. The Village Land Act (URT 1999a, b: No. 5) mandates that village authorities manage and protect village lands on behalf of village members, and Section 11 mandates that village authorities can enter into joint agreements to use village lands.
- 12.
Legislation of land tenure in Tanzania provides the opportunity for two or more villages to share natural resources across village boundaries. The Village Land Act (URT 1999a, b), under section 11 and through Regulation 2002 No. 26–35, empowers village councils to enter into joint land-use agreements with other villages, to jointly plan, manage, and use joint natural resources. Furthermore, the Land Use Plan Act section 18 (URT 2007) provides for the formation of a Joint Village Land Use Plan authority, and in section 33 (1) (b), provides for the preparation of a joint “resource management sector plan” for the use and management of shared natural resources. Furthermore, once the Joint Village Land Use Plan has been finalised, the association of land owners can seek customary rights of occupancy over the land, in order to secure their rights to land tenure.
- 13.
A commitment captured under IPBES Objective 3 (b) “Enhanced recognition of and work with indigenous and local knowledge systems” (IPBES 2021).
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Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Eamonn Brehony, David Western, Peter Tyrrell, Samantha Russell, Guy Western, John Kamanga, William Adams, Nigel Leader-Williams, Jevgeniy Bluwstein, Jens Friis Lund for many years of discussions about these topics. We would also like to thank Christian Kiffner, Monica Bond, and Derek Lee for reviewing the manuscript.
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Brehony, P., Morindat, A., Sinandei, M. (2022). Land Tenure, Livelihoods, and Conservation: Perspectives on Priorities in Tanzania’s Tarangire Ecosystem. In: Kiffner, C., Bond, M.L., Lee, D.E. (eds) Tarangire: Human-Wildlife Coexistence in a Fragmented Ecosystem. Ecological Studies, vol 243. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93604-4_5
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