Skip to main content

Diverging Facts and Values

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Covid-19 Pandemic and Global Bioethics

Part of the book series: Advancing Global Bioethics ((AGBIO,volume 18))

  • 289 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter analyzes the resurgence of Covid infections since the second half of 2020. Many countries again are not sufficiently prepared for new waves of the pandemic. While most policy-makers emphasize that their decisions are based on scientific evidence, the fundamental problem is that evidence about effective policy measures is insufficient. Policy decisions need to be taken in a context of uncertainty and unknown risks. Major controversies exist regarding the origin and characteristics of the virus, symptomatology, infectiousness, transmission, distancing, masking, immunity, vulnerability, and the role of animals. In all these cases, scientific facts are lacking, weak, questionable, or contested so that in practice policy decisions are based on value judgments. Interpreting the available evidence and proposing what should be done often involves an ethical point of view.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. World Health Organization. 2021. WHO coronavirus disease (Covid-19) dashboard.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Cacciapaglia, G., C. Cot, and F. Sannino. 2020. Second wave Covid-19 pandemics in Europe: A temporal playbook. Scientific Reports 10: 15514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. BMA Survey. 2020, 14 September.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Looi, M.-K. 2020. Covid-19: Is a second wave hitting Europe? British Medical Journal 371: m4113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Spinney, L. 2020. Why is Europe yet again at the Centre of the coronavirus pandemic? The Guardian, 2 November.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Banerjee, R., J. Bhattacharya, and P. Majumbar. 2020. Exponential-growth prediction bias and compliance with safety measures in the times of COVID-19. Bonn: IZA Institute of Labor Economics.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  7. IMF. 2020. World economic outlook. A long and difficult ascent. Washington: International Monetary Fund, October, xvii.

    Google Scholar 

  8. IMF, World economic outlook, 23.

    Google Scholar 

  9. World Health Organization. 2021. Coronovirus (Covid-19) dashboard.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Ledford, H. 2020. Why do Covid death rates appear to be falling? Nature 587: 190–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. World Health Organization. 2021. Coronovirus (Covid-19) dashboard.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Kofman, A., R. Kantor, and E.Y. Adashi. 2021. Potential Covid-19 endgame scenarios. Eradication, elimination, cohabitation, or conflagration? JAMA 326 (4): 303–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Ioannidis, J.P.A. 2020. A fiasco in the making? As the coronavirus pandemic takes hold, we are making decisions without reliable data. STAT.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Flaxman, S., S. Mishra, A. Gandy, et al. 2020. Estimating the number of infections and the impact of non-pharmaceutical interventions on Covid-19 in 11 European countries. Imperial college Covid-19 response team. Nature 584: 257–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Flaxman, S., S. Mishra, and A. Gandy, et al, Estimating the number of infections and the impact of non-pharmaceutical interventions on Covid-19 in 11 European countries; Remuzzi, A., and G. Remuzzi. 2020. Covid-19 and Italy: What next? Lancet 395: 1225–1228.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Park, S.W., B.M. Bolker, D. Champredon, et al. 2020. Reconciling early outbreak estimates of the basic reproductive number and its uncertainty: Framework and applications to the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV2) outbreak. Journal of the Royal Society Interface 17: 20200144. Disease models use mathematics to predict what might happen in the future and to evaluate control measures. They present ‘quantitative authority’ although they are not based on direct observation but they cannot eliminate uncertainty, for example because data is limited or unavailable, and assumptions about human behavior prove to be wrong. Mansnerus, E. 2013. Using model-based evidence in the governance of pandemics. In Pandemics and emerging infectious diseases: The sociological agenda, edited by R. Dingwall, L. M. Hoffman, and K. Staniland. Chichester: Wiley, 110–121; Kucharski, A. 2020. The rules of contagion. Why things spread – and why they stop. London: Profile Books.

    Google Scholar 

  17. “Lives were transformed into mathematical summaries.” Horton, R. 2020. The Covid-19 catastrophe. Cambridge: Polity, viii.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Islam, T., A.H. Pitafi, V. Arya, et al. 2020. Panic buying in the Covid-19 pandemic: A multi-country examination. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, October 23.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Cori, L., F. Bianchi, E. Cadum, and C. Anthonj. 2020. Risk perception and Covid-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17 (9): 3114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Dryhurst, S., C.R. Schneider, J. Kerr, et al. 2020. Risk perception of Covid1-9 around the world. Journal of Risk Research 23 (7–8): 994–1006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Seale, H., A.E. Heywood, J. Leask, et al. 2020. Covid-19 is rapidly changing: Examining public perceptions and behaviors in response to this pandemic. PLoS One 15 (6): e0235112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Horii, M. 2014. Why do the Japanese wear masks? A short historical review. Journal of Contemporary Japanese Studies 14 (2).

    Google Scholar 

  23. Moore, E.H., and A. Burgess. 2020. Risk rituals? Journal of Risk Research 14 (1): 111–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Lipsitch, M. 2020. We know enough now to act decisively against Covid-19. Social distancing is a good place to start. STAT, March 18.

    Google Scholar 

  25. COMEST. 2005. The precautionary principle, 14. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Peeples, L. 2020. What data say about wearing face masks. Nature 586: 186–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. “…search for perfect evidence may be the enemy of good policy.” Greenhalgh, T., M.B. Schmid, T. Czypionka, et al. 2020. Face masks for the public during the Covid-19 crisis. British Medical Journal 369; m1435; Cheng, K.K., T.H. Lam, and C.C. Leung. 2020. Wearing face masks in the community during the Covid-19 pandemic: altruism and solidarity. Lancet, April 16.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Boin, A., W. Overdijk, C. van der Han, J. Hendriks, and D. Sloof. 2020. Covid-19. Een analyse van de nationale crisisresponse, 84 ff. Leiden: The Crisis University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Wright, L. 2021. The plague year. America in the time of Covid. London: Allen Lane.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Baldwin, P. 2021. Fighting the first wave. Why the coronavirus was tackled so differently across the globe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3, 9 ff, 25, 168–169.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Rutter, H., M. Wolpert, and T. Greenhalgh. 2020. Managing uncertainty in the Covid-19 era. British Medical Journal 320: m3349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Blastland, M., A.L.J. Freeman, S. van der Linden, et al. 2020. Five rules for evidence communication. Nature 587: 362–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Wong, A., S. Ho, O. Olunsanya, M.V. Antonini, and D. Lyness. 2021. The use of social media and online communications in times of pandemic Covid-19. Journal of the Intensive Care Society 22 (3): 255–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Zhang, L. 2021. The origins of Covid-19. China and global capitalism. Stanford: Stanford Briefs.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  35. Tsao, S.-F., H. Chen, T. Tisseverasinghe, Y. Yang, L. Li, and Z.A. Butt. 2021. What social media told us in the time of Covid-19: A scoping review. Lancet Digit Health 3: e175–e194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Buchanan, K., L.B. Aknin, S. Lotun, and G.M. Sandstrom. 2021. Brief exposure to social media during the Covid-19 pandemic: Doom-scrolling has negative emotional consequences, but kindness-scrolling does not. PLoS One 16 (10): e0257728.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Harding, L. 2020. ‘Weird as hell’: The Covid-19 patients who have symptoms for months. The Guardian, May 15.

    Google Scholar 

  38. World Health Organization. 2020. Coronavirus disease (Covid-19): Similarities and difference with influenza. March 17.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Keulemans, M., E. de Visser, and T. N. Jansen. 2020. Het virus tot zover. De Volkskrant, 17 October, 4–11.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Kolata, G. 2005. Flu. The story of the great influenza pandemic of 1918 and the search for the virus that caused it, 297. New York: Atria paperback.

    Google Scholar 

  41. McKeever, A. 2021. We still don’t know the origins of the coronavirus. Here are 4 scenarios. National Geographic, April 2.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Mallapaty, S. 2020. Where did COVID come from? WHO investigation begins but faces challenges. Nature 587: 341–342; Mallapaty, S. 2020. Meet the scientists investigating the origins of the Covid pandemic. Nature 588: 208; Lei, R., R. Qiu, and P. Jia. 2021. WHO-China report on Covid: Important step forward, more to be done. The Hastings Center, April 9.

    Google Scholar 

  43. World Health Organization. 2021. WHO-convened global study of origins of SARS-CoV-2: China part. Geneva: WHO.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Beaumont, P. 2021. UK and US criticize WHO’s Covid report and accuse China of withholding data. The Guardian, March 30; Mallapaty, S. 2021. After the WHO report. What’s next in the search for Covid’s origins. Nature 592: 337–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Agence France-Press. 2021. ‘Last chance’: WHO reveals new team to investigate Covid origins. The Guardian, October 14.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Beaumont, P. 2021. Did Covid come from a Wuhan lab? What we know so far. The Guardian, May 27; Agence France-Presse. 2021. US joins calls for transparent, science-based investigation into Covid origins. The Guardian, May 26; Greve, J. E. 2021. Joe Biden orders US intelligence to intensify efforts to study Covid’s origins. The Guardian, May 27; Maxmen, A. and S. Mallapaty. 2021. The Covid lab-leak hypothesis: What scientists do and don’t know. Nature 594: 313–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Fenn, E.A. 2001. Pox Americana. The great smallpox epidemic of 1775–82, 5. New York: Hill and Wang.

    Google Scholar 

  48. De Waal, A. 2021. New pandemics, old politics. Two hundred years of war on disease and its alternatives, 180 ff. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Maxmen, A. 2021. US Covid origins report: Researchers pleased with scientific approach. Nature 597: 159–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Mercatelli, D., and F.M. Giorgi. 2020. Geographic and genomic distribution of SARS-CoV-2 mutations. Frontiers of Microbiology 11:1800; Callaway, E. 2020. Making sense of coronavirus mutations. Nature 585: 174–177.

    Google Scholar 

  51. McKie, R. 2020. What is the new Covid strain – and will vaccines work against it? The Guardian, December 19; McCarthy, M., and A. Caplan. 2020. Coronavirus mutation panic. The Hastings Center, December 22; Le Page, M. 2021. Threats from new variants. New Scientist, January 9: 8–9.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Reardon, S. 2021. The most worrying mutations in five emerging coronavirus variants. Scientific American, January 29; Burki, T. 2021. Understanding variants of SARS-CoV-2. Lancet 397: 462.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Wei-Haas, M. 2021. Why some coronavirus variants are more contagious – And how we can stop them. National Geographic, January 27.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Wise, J. 2021. Covid-19: The E484K mutation and the risks it poses. British Medical Journal 372: n359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Callaway, E. 2021. Multitude of coronavirus variants found in the US – But the threat is unclear. Nature 591: 190; Reuters, 2021. New coronavirus variant, described as ‘double mutant’, reported in India. The Guardian, March 25.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Geddes, L. 2021. Five things we know about the Delta variant (and two things we don’t. GAVI, June 15; Glenza, J. 2021. The Delta variant is spreading. What does it mean for the US? The Guardian, June 16.

    Google Scholar 

  57. For example, in mid-February 2021 more than half of infections in France are presumable caused by variants. Haim-Boukobza, S., B. Roquebert, S. Trombert-Paolantoni, et al. 2021. Detecting rapid spread of SARS-CoV-2 variants, France, January 26 – February 16, 2021. Emerging Infectious Diseases 27 (5): 1496–1499.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Kissler, S.M., C. Tedijante, E. Goldstein, Y.H. Grad, and M. Lipsitch. 2020. Projecting the transmission dynamics of SARS-VCoV-2 through the postpandemic period. Science 368: 860–868.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Callaway, E., and H. Ledford. 2021. How to redesign Covid vaccines so they protect against variants. Nature 590: 15–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Harding, ‘Weird as hell.’

    Google Scholar 

  61. Shi, Z., H.J. de Vries, A.P.J. Vlaar, et al. 2021. Diaphragm pathology in critically ill patients with Covid-19 and postmortem findings from 3 medical centers. JAMA Internal Medicine 181 (1): 122–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Frontera, J.A., S. Sabadia, R. Lalchan, et al. 2020. A prospective study of neurological disorders in hospitalized Covid-19 patients in New York City. Neurology, October 5.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. Covid-19 in children and teens. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, September 17; Parshley, L. 2020. ‘Super antigens’ tied to mysterious Covid-19 syndrome in children. National Geographic, October 16.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Huang, C., L. Huang, Y. Wang, et al. 2021. 6-month consequences of Covid-19 in patients discharged from hospital: A cohort study. Lancet 397: 220–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2021. Post-Covid conditions, April 8.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Keulemans, M., E. de Visser, T.N. Jansen, Het virus tot zover, C.H. Sudre, B. Murray, T. Varsavsky, et al. 2021. Attributes and predictors of long Covid. Nature Medicine 27: 626–631.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Nogrady, B. 2020. What the data say about asymptomatic Covid infections. Nature 587: 534–535; Oran, D.P., and E.J. Topol. 2020. Prevalence of asymptomatic SARS-CVoV-2 infection. A narrative review. Annals of Internal Medicine 173 (5): 362–367.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Oran, and Topol. 2020. Prevalence of asymptomatic SARS-CVoV-2 infection.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Cevik, M., M. Tate, O. Lloyd, et al. 2021. SARS-Co-V-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV viral load dynamics, duration of viral shedding, and infectiousness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Microbe 2: e13–e22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Eng, K.F. 2020. 5 things that scientists now know about Covid-19 – and 5 things they’re still figuring out. Ideas.Ted.com, September 16.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Schuetz, A.N., P. Hemarajata, N. Mehta, et al. 2020. When should asymptomatic persons be tested for Covid-19? Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 6 October; Rajan, S., J. Cylus, and M. McKee. 2020. Successful find-test-trace-isolate-support systems. Eurohealth 26 (2).

    Google Scholar 

  72. Moghadas, S.M., M.C. Fitzpatrick, P. Sah, et al. 2020. The implications of silent transmission for the control of Covid-19 outbreaks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 117 (30): 17513–17515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Műller, M., P.M. Derlet, C. Mudry, and A. Aeppli. 2020. Testing of asymptomatic individuals for fast feedback-control of Covid-19 pandemic. Physical Biology 17 (6): 065007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Holt, E. 2020. Slovakia to test all adults for SARS-CoV-2. Lancet 396: 1386-1387; Lewis, T. 2021. Slovakia offers a lesson in how rapid testing van fight Covid. Scientific American, April 8; Pavelka, M., K. Van-Zandvoort, S. Abbott, et al. 2021. The impact of population-wide rapid antigen testing on SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in Slovakia. Science: eabf9648.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Peto, J. 2020. Covid-19 mass testing facilities could end the epidemic rapidly. British Medical Journal 368:m2263; Peto, J., N.A. Alwan, K.M. Godfrey, et al. 2020. Universal testing as the UK Covid-19 lockdown exit strategy. Lancet 395 (10234): 1420–1421.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Dinnes, J., J.J. Deeks, S. Berhane, et al. 2021. Cochrane COVID-19 diagnostic test accuracy group. Rapid, point-of-care antigen and molecular-based tests for diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2021, issue 3. Art. No.: CD013705.

    Google Scholar 

  77. European Center for Disease Prevention and Control. 2021. Considerations on the use of self-tests for Covid-19 in the EU/EEA. Stockholm: ECDC.

    Google Scholar 

  78. See, for example, Audureau, W., G. Dagom, A. Maad, and J. Parienté. 2020. Covid-19: 54 scientifiques évaluent la stratégie sanitaire. Le Monde, September 30.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Peto, Alwan, Godfrey, et al. Universal testing as the UK Covid-19 lockdown exit strategy, 1420.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Kretzschmar, M.E., G. Rozhnova, M.C.J. Bootsma, et al. 2020. Impact of delays on effectiveness of contact tracing strategies for Covid-19: A modelling study. The Lancet Public Health 5: e452–e459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Keulemans, M. 2020. Steeds meer besmettingen, maar waar zit het lek? De Volkskrant 9 September: 4.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Cox, C., and M. Dixon-Woods. 2020. Need for ethical framework to guide mass testing for asymptomatic covid-19. British Medical Journal 371: m4567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Raffle, A.E., A.M. Pollock, and L. Harding-Edgar. 2020. Covid-19 mass testing programmes. British Medical Journal 370: m3263.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Jung, J., H. Jang, H.K. Kim, et al. 2020. The importance of mandatory Covid-19 diagnostic testing prior to release from quarantine. Journal of Korean Medical Science 35 (34): e314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Peto, Alwan, Godfrey, et al. Universal testing as the UK Covid-19 lockdown exit strategy, 1420–1421.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Van Doremalen, N., T. Bushmaker, D.H. Morris, et al. 2020. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared to SARS-CoV-1. New England Journal of Medicine 382 (16): 1564–1567; Goldie, S., A. Hill, D. Eagles, and T.W. Drew. 2020. The effect of temperature on persistence of SARS-CoV-2 on common surfaces. Virology Journal 17: 145.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Goldman, E. 2020. Exaggerated risk of transmission of Covid-19 by fomites. Lancet Infectious Diseases 20: 892–893; Mondelli, M.U., M. Colaneri, E. M. Seminari, et al. 2021. Low risks of SARS-Co-V-2 transmission by fomites in real-life conditions. Lancet Infectious Diseases 21: e112; Goldman, E. 2021. SARS wars: The fomites strike back. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 87 (13): e00653–e00621.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Lewis, D. 2021. Covid-19 rarely infects through surfaces. So why are we still deep cleaning? Nature 590: 26–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Lednicky, J.A., M. Lauzardo, Z.H. Fan, et al. 2020. Viable SARS-CoV-2 in the air of a hospital room with Covid-19 patients. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 100: 476–482; see also: Santarpia, J. L., D. N. Rivera, V. L. Herrera, et al. 2020. Aerosol and surface contamination of SARS-CoV-2 observed in quarantine and isolation care. Scientific Reports 10, 12732.

    Google Scholar 

  90. See, for example, Cyranoski, D. 2020. How to stop restaurants seeding Covid infections. Nature 587: 344.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Lebrecht, N. 2020. Concertgebouw chorus is devastated after pre-Covid Bach passion.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Morawska, L., and D.K. Milton. 2020. It is time to address airborne transmission of coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19). Clinical Infectious Diseases ciaa939.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Chu, D.K., E.A. Akl, S. Duda, et al. 2020. Physical distancing, face masks, and eye protection to prevent person-to-person transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and Covid-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 395: 1973–1987.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Jones, N.R., Z.U. Qureshi, R.J. Temple, et al. 2020. Two metres or one: What is the evidence for physical distancing in Covid-19? British Medical Journal 370: m3223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. McLaws, M-L. 2020. What is the Covid ‘bubble’ concept, and could it work in Australia? The Conversation, August 31; Rankin, J. 2020. Belgium experiments with ‘corona bubbles’ to ease social restrictions. The Guardian, May 10.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Long, N.J. 2020. From social distancing to social containment. Reimagining sociality for the coronavirus pandemic. Medicine Anthropology Theory 7 (2): 247–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Whang, O., and K. Elliott. 2020. Poll finds more Americans than ever think we should wear masks. National Geographic, October 5.

    Google Scholar 

  98. WHO. 2020. Advice on the use of masks in the context of Covid-19. Interim Guidance (June 5).

    Google Scholar 

  99. See, for example: Chu, Akl, and Duda, et al. Physical distancing, face masks, and eye protection to prevent person-to-person transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and Covid-19; Chan, T.K. 2020. Universal masking for Covid-19: Evidence, ethics and recommendations. BMJ Global Health 5: e002819.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Gandhi, M., C. Beyrer, and E. Goosby. 2020. Masks do more than protect others during Covid-19: Reducing the inoculum of SARS-CoV-2 to protect the wearer. Journal of General Internal Medicine 35 (10): 3063–3066.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Bundgaard, H., J.S. Bundgaard, D.E.T. Raaschau-Pedersen, et al. 2021. Effectiveness of adding a mask recommendation to other public health measures to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection in Danish mask wearers. Annals of Internal Medicine 174 (93): 335–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Greenhalgh, T. 2020. Face coverings for the public; laying straw men to rest. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 26: 1070–1077.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  103. Ji, D., X. Li, and S. Ramakrishna. 2020. Addressing the worldwide shortage of face masks. BMC Materials 2: 9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Spooner, J.L. 1967. History of surgical face masks. AORN Journal 5 (1): 76–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Jefferson, T., C.B. Del Mar, L. Dooley, et al. 2011. Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 7. Art. No.: CD006207.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Wu, J., F. Xu, W. Zhou, et al. 2004. Risk factors for SARS among persons without known contact with SARS patients, Beijing. China. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10 (2): 210–216.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Van der Vliet, N., K. van der Swaluw, M. Zonneveld, et al. 2020. Gedragswetenschappelijke literatuur rond mondkapjesgebruik. Een rapid review van de literatuur. Bilthoven: Gedragsexpertiseteam RIVM.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Macer, D. 2020. Wearing masks in Covid-19 pandemic, the precautionary principle, and the relationships between individual responsibility and group solidarity. Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 30 (4): 129–132.

    Google Scholar 

  109. IHME COVID-19 Forecasting Team, R.C. Reiner, R.M. Barber, et al. 2021. Modeling COVID-19 scenarios for the United States. Nature Medicine 27: 94–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Lynteris, C. 2018. Plague masks: The visual emergence of anti-epidemic personal protection equipment. Medical Anthropology 37 (6): 442–457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  111. Horii, Why do the Japanese wear masks? Burgess, A., and M. Horii. 2012. Risk, ritual and health responsibilisation: Japan’s ‘safety blanket’ of surgical face mask-wearing. Sociology of Health & Illness 34 (8): 1184–1198; Sand, J. 2020. We share what we exhale. Times Literary Supplement, May 1: 22–23.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Earnest, M. 2020. On becoming a plague doctor. New England Journal of Medicine 383: e64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Howard, J., A. Huang, Z. Li, et al. 2020. Face masks against Covid-19: An evidence review. Preprint 2020040203.

    Google Scholar 

  114. Sunstein, C.R. 2020. The meaning of masks. Journal of Behavioral Economics for Policy 4 (S): 5–8.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Burgess, A., and M. Horii. 2012. Risk, ritual and health responsibilisation: Japan’s ‘safety blanket’ of surgical face mask-wearing. Sociology of Health & Illness 34 (8): 1194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Syed, Q., W. Sopwith, M. Regan, and M.A. Bellis. 2003. Behind the mask. Journey through an epidemic: Some observations of contrasting health responses to SARS. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 57: 855–856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Edridge, A.W.D., J. Kaczorowska, A.C.R. Hoste, et al. 2020. Seasonal coronavirus protective immunity is short-lasting. Nature Medicine 26: 1691–1693.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. Abbasi, J. 2021. Study suggest lasting immunity after Covid-19, with a big boost from vaccination. JAMA 326 (5): 376–377.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  119. Ibarrondo, F.J., J.A. Fulcher, D. Goodman-Meza, et al. 2020. Rapid decay of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in persons with mild Covid-19. New England Journal of Medicine 383 (11): 1085–1087; Ward, H., G. Cooke, C. Atchison, et al. 2020. Declining prevalence of antibody positivity to SARS-CoV-2: A community study of 365,000 adults. Preprint.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Hansen, C.H., D. Michlmayr, S.M. Gubbels, et al. 2021. Assessment of protection against reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 among 4 million PCR-tested individuals in Denmark in 2020: A population-level observational study. Lancet 397: 1204–1212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Aschwanden, C. 2020. The false promise of herd immunity. Nature 587: 26–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  122. Bramstedt, K.A. 2020. Antibodies as currency: COVID-19’s golden passport. Bioethical Inquiry 17: 687–689; Voo, T. C., H. Clapham, and C.C. Tam. 2020. Ethical implication of immunity passports during the Covid-19 pandemic. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 222: 715–718.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  123. Jabbari, P., and N. Rezaei. 2020. With the risk of reinfection, is Covid-19 here to stay? Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 14 (4): e33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. Milne, G., T. Hames, C. Scotton, N. Gent, A. Johnsen, R.M. Anderson, and T. Ward. 2021. Does infection with or vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 lead to lasting infection? The Lancet Respiratory Medicine, October 21.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Dolgin, E. 2021. Covid vaccine immunity is waning – How much does it matter? Nature 597: 606–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Hawkins, D. 2020. Differential occupational risk for COVID-19 and other infection exposure according to race and ethnicity. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 63 (9): 817–820.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  127. Kiaghadi, A., H.S. Rifai, and W. Liaw. 2020. Assessing COVID-19 risk, vulnerability and infection prevalence in communities. PLoS One 15 (10): e0241166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. Rubin, R. 2020. Investigating whether blood type is linked to Covid-19 risk. JAMA 324 (13): 1273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  129. Zeberg, H., and S. Pääbo. 2020. The major genetic risk factor for severe COVID-19 is inherited from Neanderthals. Nature 587: 610–612.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. Health equity considerations and racial and ethnic minority groups. July 24.

    Google Scholar 

  131. Chaudhry, R., G. Dranitsaris, T. Mubashir, J. Bartoszko, and S. Riazi. 2020. A country level analysis measuring the impact of government actions, country preparedness and socioeconomic factors on Covid-19 mortality and related health outcomes. EClinicalMedicine 25: 100464; Changeux, J. P., Z. Amoura, F. A. Rey, and M. Miyara. 2020. A nicotine hypothesis for Covid-10 with preventive and therapeutic implications Comtes Rendu Biologies 343 (1): 33–39.

    Google Scholar 

  132. World Health Organization. 2020. Coronavirus disease (Covid-19): Tobacco. May 27; see also: Vardavas, C., and K. Nikitara. 2020. COVID-19 and smoking: A systematic review of the evidence. Tobacco Induced Diseases, March 20.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Van Westen-Lagerweij, N.A., E. Meijer, E.G. Meeuwsen, et al. 2021. Are smokers protected against SARS-CoV-2 infection (Covid-19)? The origins of the myth. npj Primary Care Respiratory Medicine 31, 10; Davey, M. 2021. Scientific paper claiming smokers less likely to acquire Covid retracted over tobacco industry links. The Guardian, April 22.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. Covid-19 and animals., December 4.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Oude Munnink, B.B., R.S. Sikkema, D.F. Nieuwenhuijse, et al. 2020. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on mink farms between humans and mink and back to humans. Science (10 November).

    Google Scholar 

  136. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. If you have pets. September 9.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Kiros, M., H. Anudalem, R. Kiros, et al. 2020. Covid-19 pandemic: Current knowledge about the role of pets and other animals in disease transmission. Virology Journal 17: 143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

ten Have, H. (2022). Diverging Facts and Values. In: The Covid-19 Pandemic and Global Bioethics. Advancing Global Bioethics, vol 18. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-91491-2_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics