Abstract
Development of groundwater irrigation (GWI) has been very impressive in India, especially after the introduction of green revolution. Area under GWI accounts for about 65% of net irrigated area in 2016–17. Though GWI provides added benefits to farmers as compared to other sources of irrigation, the continuous exploitation of groundwater of late has resulted in drastic drop in water table, salinization and quality deterioration in different parts of the country. Since groundwater contributes overwhelmingly to agricultural growth, the unrestrained exploitation of groundwater can hamper the future growth of agriculture. GWI is controlled by many factors, which are dynamic and bound to change along with the agricultural development. Therefore, one needs to understand the factors determining the groundwater development in different regions over time to understand the dynamics of groundwater use. Though many studies are available on different aspects of GWI in India, not many studies have looked at the sustainable aspects of GWI considering together major States of India. An attempt is made in this chapter to study the development as well as the factors determining GWI over time using state-wise data with a view to suggest appropriate interventions to sustain the use of groundwater.
This chapter has been written with the financial support of UGC-STRIDE Component-I grant sanctioned to the Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, vide letter No. F. 2-5/2019 (STRIDE-I), dated 03.12.2019.
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Notes
- 1.
Because of certainty and controllability in water supply, the crops cultivated using groundwater irrigation are significantly more productive than the same crops cultivated using canal and tank irrigation. Evidences from India suggest that crop yield/m3 on groundwater irrigated area tends to be 1.2–3 times higher than the crops cultivated under surface irrigation (see, Dhawan, 1989; Shah et al., 2003).
- 2.
An estimate shows that 70–80% of value of irrigated production relied on groundwater irrigation in India during 1990–93. Interestingly, the contribution of groundwater was also estimated to be increased by 84% between 1970–73 and 1990–93. For more details on this see, Roy and Shah (2003).
- 3.
There are no relationships between the investment in irrigation sector and the irrigated area created. For instance, at the end of the ninth plan (1997–2002), altogether about INR 1008.65 billion (in current prices) have been spent on major and medium irrigation (MMI) sector, which is essentially for the development of canal irrigation. But the area created through MMI sector is almost stagnant particularly after mid-1990s. MMI sector alone accounted for nearly 65% of the total public sector investment in irrigation and flood control sectors at the end of ninth plan (GoI, 2002).
- 4.
The relationship between the surface irrigation and groundwater irrigation in India has been eloquently explained by Dhawan (1991).
- 5.
Unlike bore-wells or tube-wells, the depth of dug-wells is normally shallow in various parts in India. Because of continuous exploitation of groundwater through deep bore-wells connected with large HP pumpsets, the overall water level depleted which ultimately reduced the recharging capacity of dug-wells significantly over the years. As a result, dug-wells constructed especially in hard rock areas became defunct or functioning way below the level of its normal capacity.
- 6.
Over-exploited blocks are the one which exploit over 100% of the groundwater recharge. Those blocks which exploit water over 90–100% of recharge is defined as critical blocks. If the groundwater utilisation is between the range of 70–90% of recharge it will be treated as semi-critical blocks. All those blocks which exploit groundwater less than 70% of recharge is classified as safe blocks. However, Vaidyanathan (1996) has questioned about the validity of this classification because the boundaries of the basic unit of the classification seldom coincide with the hydrological units.
- 7.
A number of studies have looked at the nexus between electricity tariff policies and groundwater use/exploitation in Indian agriculture using data from different regions. Contradicting evidences and discussions on the nexus between electricity tariff policy and groundwater development can be seen from Shah (1993), Moench (Moench, 1994a, b), Moench and Kumar (1994), Narayanamoorthy (1997).
- 8.
Besides increasing private cost of water, the over-exploitation of groundwater has also increased the public cost on account of energy subsidy. An estimate indicates that Indian farmers use subsidized energy worth of US$ 4.5–5 billion/year to pump out some 150 km3 of water mostly for irrigation purposes (Shah et al., 2003).
- 9.
Though drip method of irrigation is introduced primarily to have increased water saving in crop cultivation, it is found to be generating many other benefits. The beneficial impacts of drip method irrigation on water saving, electricity saving, productivity of crops and other parameters have been discussed in detail by Narayanamoorthy (2003, 2005).
- 10.
Due to various promotional schemes being operated by State and Central governments, the area under drip method irrigation has increased from a mere 1500 hectares (ha) in 1985–86 to 70,859 ha in 1991–92 and further to 5.36 mha in 2018–19. Though the development of drip irrigated area in absolute level is very significant, the coverage in relation to its total potential is very meager as of today. The Task Force on Micro-Irrigation has estimated that the total potential area available for drip and sprinkler method of irrigation as 27 mha and 69.5 mha respectively (see, GoI, 2004).
- 11.
Groundwater levels are being measured for four times a year during January, April/May, August and November by Central Groundwater Board through a network of about 15,000 observation wells located all over the country. This data is used for assessment of groundwater resources and changes in the regime consequent to various development and management activities (http://cgwb.gov.in)
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Narayanamoorthy, A. (2022). Groundwater Irrigation in India: Development, Overexploitation and Sustainability. In: The Irrigation Future of India. Global Issues in Water Policy, vol 29. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89613-3_4
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