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Some Hands on Deck: Labor Politics and Practices

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The Business of Marketing, Entrepreneurship, and Architecture of Communal Societies in the 1960s and 1970s

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Abstract

For Soul City, Stelle, and Twin Oaks, their approach to labor significantly impacted both the built environment and emotional connections between members. The moral economy offers a space in which to analyze the tension that occurs between each community and society at large, specifically as it occurs between ideal and actualized economic values and social values. Analyzing the labor practices of each community highlights the exploitative practices of the free market system and the alienation individuals experienced with their labor. Communal societies appealed to a variety of people because they offered the opportunity to directly experience the fruits of one’s labor through communally owned goods, through clean communities, shared meals, water access, and other aspects of the community.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Miller, The Hippies and American Values, 81–82, 97; Micah Lee Issitt, Hippies: A Guide to an American Subculture (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press, 2009), 52–54; John Anthony Moretta, The Hippies: A 1960s History (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2017), 246–252.

  2. 2.

    Mauritz, “Moral Economy,” 16; also see James C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976).

  3. 3.

    Kueshana, The Ultimate Frontier, 156.

  4. 4.

    Ibid., 146. Kieninger’s relationship with class and social standing was a frequent struggle in The Ultimate Frontier.

  5. 5.

    Walter Cox, Interview by Daniel J. Glenn. The Stelle Experience. 4/8/2014. http://www.thestelleexperience.com/ep-15-walter-cox-part-1/.

  6. 6.

    Machiz, “A City of Human Possibility,” 4; English, “A Thumbnail Sketch of Stelle,” 11.

  7. 7.

    English, “A Thumbnail Sketch of Stelle,” 8, 10.

  8. 8.

    Carnahan, Malcolm. Interview by Daniel J. Glenn. The Stelle Experience. 3/18/14. http://www.thestelleexperience.com/ep-12-malcolm-carnahan-part-2/.

  9. 9.

    Kueshana, The Ultimate Frontier, 169.

  10. 10.

    Ibid., 302–303.

  11. 11.

    Ibid., 170.

  12. 12.

    Popenoe & Popenoe, “Stelle,” 20.

  13. 13.

    Chamberlain, “Sect believes world’s end near,” G4.

  14. 14.

    Rout, “Illinois Town Girds for Upheaval Soon, Catastrophe in 2000.”

  15. 15.

    Diane Howery, “Monthly Discussion,” Stelle Letter, December 1972, 2.

  16. 16.

    David Cysewski, “On the Role of Women in Stelle,” Stelle Letter, October 1972, 3.

  17. 17.

    Ibid.

  18. 18.

    Carroll English, “Dianne Frothingham,” The Placemaker, March/April 1985, 3.

  19. 19.

    Kent Williams and J. E. Howery, “Water Treatment at Stelle,” Stelle Letter, June 1974, 2–3, 5. CCS.

  20. 20.

    Richard Kieninger, “Observations,” The Stelle Letter, November 1972, 5.

  21. 21.

    “Greenhouses,” Stelle Letter 12.6, 1977, 1.

  22. 22.

    Kuhlmann, Living Walden Two, 7. The labor credit system was taken from Edward Bellamy’s work, Looking Backwards, in which different work was given varying levels of credit to make certain jobs more appealing.

  23. 23.

    Skinner. Walden Two, 46.

  24. 24.

    Houriet, Getting Back Together, 309–310.

  25. 25.

    Leaves No. 6 April 1968, 1; Houriet, Getting Back Together, 312.

  26. 26.

    Leaves No. 3 November 1967, 2; Kerry L. Conlon. “Countercultural Communes: Rejection or Reflection of Conventional Mainstream Gender Norms?” A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-Newark Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 2014, 49–50; Batya Weinbaum, “Twin Oaks: A Feminist Looks at Indigenous Socialism in the United States,” in Women in Search of Utopia: Mavericks and Mythmakers, edited by Ruby Rohrlich and Elaine Hoffman Baruch (New York: Schocken Books, 1984), 155–167; also see Jud Jerome, “Middle Aged Men in Communes.” Communities: Journal of Cooperative Living, No. 28 (September/October 1977): 9–13.

  27. 27.

    Conlon, “Countercultural Communes,” 33–34; “What is a Labor Credit?” Walden House Newsletter (February 1966) published in Journal of a Walden Two Commune; also see Kinkade, A Walden Two Experiment, 64–65.

  28. 28.

    Weinbaum, “Twin Oaks,” 161; also, Conlon. “Countercultural Communes,” 41–42.

  29. 29.

    The Collected Leaves of Twin Oaks Vol. 2, 16–30, 1972–74, 4. CCS.

  30. 30.

    Krystuna Neuman and Henry Wilhelm, “Radical Commune: An Approach to Revolution.” The Modern Utopian page 4. Papers of Twin Oaks Community Box 4, No 9840-l. Special Collections, UV.

  31. 31.

    Kinkade, “Labor Credits,” Leaves of Twin Oaks no. 8 (December 1968), published in Journal of a Walden Two Commune, 55; Conlon. “Countercultural Communes,” 27–28; Houriet, Getting Back Together, 309–310.

  32. 32.

    Leaves No. 8 December 1968, 5.

  33. 33.

    Leaves No. 11 January 1970, 2.

  34. 34.

    Kuhlmann, Living Walden Two, 201; Kinkade, Is it Utopia Yet?, 32.

  35. 35.

    Leaves No. 44 Spring 1977, 19; The Collected Leaves of Twin Oaks. Vol. 2, 16–30, 1972–74, 66; Also see Tamar and Jami “The Labor Credit System” Leaves Vol. 2 Issue 26, January 1974; Kinkade, Is it Utopia Yet?, 41.

  36. 36.

    “What is Twin Oaks.” Promotional pamphlet Jan 1971. Twin Oaks Papers. Box 6, 9840-a thru-f, folder: 1971 Jan 8–14 Papers of Twin Oaks Community: Weekly Population and Historical Events Record #105. Special Collections, UV.

  37. 37.

    Leaves No. 8 December 1968, 5.

  38. 38.

    “Labor” n.d. Folder: 1969–75 Notes and Correspondence on Starting a Commune folder, page 4. Papers of Twin Oaks, Box 5, 9840-j. Special Collections, UV.

  39. 39.

    Kuhlmann, Living Walden Two, 112. Also see Houriet, Getting Back Together, 326.

  40. 40.

    Kinkade, “Labour Credit—Twin Oaks Community,” 183.

  41. 41.

    Kinkade, Is it Utopia Yet?, 47; Leaves No. 44 Spring 1977, 20.

  42. 42.

    Kinkade, Is it Utopia Yet?, 50.

  43. 43.

    “Labor” n.d., page 5. Folder: 1969–75 Notes and Correspondence on Starting a Commune folder. Papers of Twin Oaks, Box 5, 9840-j. Special Collections, UV.

  44. 44.

    “The Code” Twin Oaks pamphlet. 1973. Twin Oaks pamphlets folder. CCS; Leaves No.8 December 1968, 5.

  45. 45.

    French and French, Working Communally, 198–199; Christopher Michaelson, “Whose responsibility is meaningful work?” The Journal of Management Development 30.6 (2011): 548–549; “Leaving Twin Oaks: A Conversation with Former Members,” 22–24.

  46. 46.

    Ibid., 88.

  47. 47.

    Kinkade, Is it Utopia Yet?, 33.

  48. 48.

    Putterman, Peasants, Collectives and Choice, 53, 62.

  49. 49.

    Collie & George for the Production Crew, “Outside Work, GM and All That,” n.d. Box 2, 9840-M, Bulletin (O&I) Board Notices. Special Collections, UV.

  50. 50.

    Kuhlmann, Living Walden Two, 112.

  51. 51.

    Maurtiz, “Moral Economy,” 76–77.

  52. 52.

    Leaves No. 37, vol. 2 December 1975, 4, 6.

  53. 53.

    Letter from Kathleen to Rudy. n.d. page 6. Additional Papers of the Twin Oaks Community. Box 5, no. 9840-i. Folder, Correspondence of Twin Oaks 1968–76. Special Collections, UV.

  54. 54.

    Letter from Kathleen Griebe to John. May 11, 1968. Additional Archives of the Twin Oaks Community. Box 5. No 9840-h. Folder, 1968 Correspondence re: Twin Oaks. Special Collections, UV.

  55. 55.

    “WHAT IS EXPECTED OF AN OUTSIDE WORKER.” Box 2, 9840-Q, 1975–77, Income Council: Outside Work folder. Special Collections, UV.

  56. 56.

    Leaves No. 6 April 1968, 1.

  57. 57.

    The Weekly #8. March 24, 1974. Twin Oaks Additional Papers, Box 1, 9340-g, 1974 February–April, Twin Oaks Newspaper, “The Weekly.” Special Collections, UV.

  58. 58.

    Karl, “Results of Hammock Labor Research” Twin Oaks papers, Box 3, No 9840-Q, Income Council: Products-Hammocks, 1971–77. Special Collections, UV.

  59. 59.

    Ibid.

  60. 60.

    Leaves No. 10 September 1969, 2; Rahima Schwenkbeck notes from Communities Conference 2013 visit to Twin Oaks; Pomeranz, From Fiction to Reality, 145; “Hammocks Incentive Program/Something Special/assorted incentive proposals.” Box 3, No 9840-Q, 1977–79, Income Council: Products—Hammocks Production Incentive Program. Special Collections, UV.

  61. 61.

    Gerri, “Ahem, About Those Rockers???” n.d. Box 3, 9840-Q, 1978–81 Income Council: Products-Emerald City. Special Collections, UV.

  62. 62.

    NIC Report on Backpackers (BP), page 4. Box 1, MSS 9840-X, 1977–78 Income Council. New Industry Crew, Business Papers. Special Collections, UV.

  63. 63.

    George and Vince, “Survey Analysis” 2/2/78. Twin Oaks Papers 1970–89; 1997, Box 3, MSS 9840-X, folder 1977, Income Council Survey. Special Collections, UV.

  64. 64.

    Justin, “A Cowpile Issue” January 5, 1979, Box 1, 9840-Q, folder: 1977–81 Agriculture Council Special Collections, UV.

  65. 65.

    Skinner. Walden Two, 45; The Collected Leaves of Twin Oaks. Vol. 2, 16–30, 1972–74, 25. CCS.

  66. 66.

    Kinkade, A Walden Two Experiment, 69.

  67. 67.

    Unknown. “Short Green: A Rap on Communal Finances.” Communities: Journal of Cooperative Living 10 (Nov 1974), 22; Kinkade, “Labour Credit—Twin Oaks Community,” 184.

  68. 68.

    Bart Landry and Kris Marsh, “The Evolution of the New Black Middle Class” in The Annual Review of Sociology 37 2011:373–94, 375.

  69. 69.

    Hammer, Green and Siler Soul City development proposals draft, October 16, 1969. Box 6, 2.3. Folder #62. SCC.

  70. 70.

    Minchin, “‘A Brand New Shining City,’” 132; Gordon Carey, “Freedom Highways,” CORE-Lator. No. 97, September, pages 1–4. Collection of North Caroliniana. cP326 C27F. Southern Historical Collection, UNC; Pat Stith, “Soul City: a Tangled Web,” The News and Observer, March 2, 1975. NC Collection Clipping File Through 1976, Reel 30, pp. 510–895, CR 917, N67, V. 155. UNC; “New Registrar Appointed” Soul City Sounder Vol. III, No. 1, page 3, March 1976. #469, Box 10, 3.5.6.7.4.1.2. #142, SCC.

  71. 71.

    Pat Stith, “Many Soul City Board Members in the Dark,” The News and Observer, March 15, 1975. NC Collection Clipping File Through 1976, Reel 30, pp. 510–895, CR 917, N67, V. 155, UNC.

  72. 72.

    Roland Alston, “Portrait of a New City (Soul City)” Black Enterprise, August 1977, page 53; Statement by Mr. Floyd B. McKissick, Sr. March 20, 1975, Howard Johnson Motel, Henderson, NC, pages 11–12, Soul City Collection, Box 10, 5.6.7.4.1.2, Folder #143. UNC.

  73. 73.

    LH Fountain. Personal notes, pages 2–3. 4304. Fountain, LH, Subject Files, 1981, s-W #70, “Soul City” folder #4022. Southern Historical Collection, UNC.

  74. 74.

    Pat Stith, “Firm Got U.S. Financing for l City PR Work,” the News and Observer, May 18, 1975. NC Collection Clippings File Through 1976, Reel 30, pages 518–695, CR N67, V. 155. North Carolina Collection, UNC.

  75. 75.

    Joel Haswell. “Soul City Groundbreaking is Planned in Two Months” Durham Morning Herald, Wednesday October [date obscured]. NC Collection Clipping File Through 1976, Reel 30, pp. 510–895, CR 917, N67, V. 155. North Carolina Collection, UNC.

  76. 76.

    Hammer, Green and Siler. “Economic Base Study of Soul City, North Carolina: An Evaluation of the Industrial Market Potential of a Proposed New Town. Prepared for Floyd B. McKissick Enterprises, Inc” December 1969, page 30. Box 6, 2.3. Folder 63. SCC.

  77. 77.

    Gordon Carey, “Report of Organizational Committee on Staffing, Fund raising and Administration” Box 9, 3.1.2.3.4, Folder 91-119, Board of Directors Meeting Agenda for 1.19.1971. SCC.

  78. 78.

    Bob Jasinkiewicz, “Soul City—from Wilderness to Camelot,” The Daily Tar Heel. NC Collection Clipping File Through 1976, Reel 30, pp. 510–895, CR 917, N67, V. 155. UNC.

  79. 79.

    Interview with Eva Clayton, July 18, 1989. Interview C-0084. Southern Oral History Program Collection (#4007), Kathryn Nasstrom, interviewer, pages 13–14; Fergus, “Black Power, Soft Power,” 165.

  80. 80.

    “The Negroes’ Temporary Farewell: Jim Crow and the Exclusion of African Americans from Congress, 1887–1929.” http://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/BAIC/Historical-Essays/Temporary-Farewell/Introduction/.

  81. 81.

    Shennette Garrett-Scott, “To Do a Work that Would Be Very Far Reaching: Minnie Geddings Cox, the Mississippi Life Insurance Company, and the Challenges of Black Women’s Business Leadership in the Early Twentieth-Century in the United States.” Enterprise & Society: The International Journal of Business History 17.3 (September 2016): 473–514, page 475.

  82. 82.

    Dot Waller to Don R. Carey, July 12, 1976, Box 122, Folder 2264, Floyd B. McKissick, Sr. files, Special Collections. NCCU Archives. Southern Historical Collection, UNC.

  83. 83.

    Bart Landry and Kris Marsh, “The Evolution of the New Black Middle Class,” The Annual Review of Sociology 37 2011:373–94, page 381.

  84. 84.

    Roland Alston, “Portrait of a New City (Soul City),” Black Enterprise, August 1977, pages 43–44; 46–49, 53; Dean Kotlowski, “Black power—Nixon style: The Nixon administration and minority business enterprise,” Business History Review 72.3 (Autumn 1998): 409–446.

  85. 85.

    “Feasibility Study for the Development of Soul City, North Carolina”, by Urban Interface Group, prepared for HUD, Office of New Community Development, December 6, 1971, page 63, E-1.

  86. 86.

    Farrington, “Build, Baby, Build,” 71.

  87. 87.

    Fergus, “Black Power, Soft Power,” 175; Magazine clipping from something related to MESBICs, “Soul City—Site of South/Southwest Regional Meeting,” SHC, 4304. Fountain, LH, Subject Files 1977 Pe-W, Series 1, Soul City folder, UNC; Minchin, “‘A Brand New Shining City,’” 144–145; Rhee, “Visions, Illusions and Perceptions,” 92.

  88. 88.

    Letter from David Godschalk to W. D. McNeill. March 3, 1971. Box 9, 3.1.2.3, Folder #109, “Correspondence.” SCC.

  89. 89.

    Rhee, “Visions, Illusions and Perceptions,” 87.

  90. 90.

    Soul City Company. 1979 Marketing Plan for Soul City, North Carolina, Submitted to NCDC/HUD. November 1978, page 4. 4930, McKissick Papers, 1.1.3.1 Box 80, 1979 Marketing Plan for Soul City, Nov. 1978. NCCU Archives. Southern Historical Collection, UNC.

  91. 91.

    Paul G. Buchanan to Henry J. Browne, undated, Box 122, Folder 2263, Floyd B. McKissick, Sr. files. NCCU Archives. Southern Historical Collection, UNC.

  92. 92.

    Levinson, David and Karen Christensen, “Intentional Communities and Communal Economics.” Encyclopedia of Community: From the Village to the Virtual World, Volume 2: 681–685, pages 681–682.

  93. 93.

    “Labor.” 1969–75 Notes and Correspondence on Starting a Commune folder, page 2. Papers of Twin Oaks, Box 5, 9840-j. Special Collections, UV.

  94. 94.

    Ibid.

  95. 95.

    Nelson, “Money versus Socialism.” Life Without Money, 39; Levinson, David and Karen Christensen, “Intentional Communities and Communal Economics.” Encyclopedia of Community: From the Village to the Virtual World, Volume 2: 681–685, page 681.

  96. 96.

    Louis Putterman, Peasants, Collectives and Choice: Economic Theory and Tanzania’s Villages. Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 57. Eds. Edward I. Altman and Ingo Walter (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, Inc., 1986), 20–21.

  97. 97.

    Sharon C. Bolton and Knut Laaser, “Work, employment and society through the lens of moral economy,” Work Employment and Society 27.3 (June 2013), 508–525, page 509.

  98. 98.

    Polanyi, “The Economy as Instituted Process,” 127–129.

  99. 99.

    “Since the Convention—An Editorial.” Walden Pool newsletter Vol. 1 No. 8 Atlanta, Georgia. Jan-Feb 1967, page 1. Additional Archives of the Twin Oaks Community, box 6, 9840-h, 1966–67 Newsletters: Walden House and Walden Pool. Special Collections, UV.

  100. 100.

    Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Ruse of Digital Utopianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 77; Lynn, “Country Women,” 34–37. Also see Sharp et al., Economics of Social Issues, 290–291; Mike Featherstone, “The Heroic Life and Everyday Life” Theory, Culture & Society 9.1 (February 1992), 165; Edgington, “Be Receptive to the Good Earth,” 298; Lynn, “Country Women,” 27–28. Also see Tim Hodgdon, “‘The Male Work Ethic Was Busted’: Manhood, Feminism and the Sexual Division of Labor at Black Bear Ranch, 1968–74” Communal Societies: Journal of the Communal Studies Association 23 (2003), 93–120; Conlon, “Countercultural Communes,” 43.

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    Rahima Schwenkbeck

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Schwenkbeck, R. (2021). Some Hands on Deck: Labor Politics and Practices. In: The Business of Marketing, Entrepreneurship, and Architecture of Communal Societies in the 1960s and 1970s . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88354-6_6

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