Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Impact of Self-Construals and Thinking Styles on Business and Management Practices: A Comparison of East Asia and North America

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
International Business in the New Asia-Pacific

Part of the book series: Advances in Theory and Practice of Emerging Markets ((ATPEM))

Abstract

This chapter outlines the most influential frameworks in cultural psychology, namely self-construals and thinking styles, both of which were developed based on differences between North American and East Asian cultures. We review empirical findings supporting these frameworks. We discuss the profound implications of these cultural frameworks for international business in East Asia, from workplace management and marketing strategies all the way to information exchange and investment decisions. We conclude the chapter with caveats, which identify some common misinterpretations associated with the literature on cultural psychology and the applications for international business.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Aaker, D. (1990). Brand extensions: The good, the bad, and the ugly. MIT Sloan Management Review, 31(4), 47–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity of social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 267–299). Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alderman, L. (March 25 2011). Less appetite for luxury. The New York Times. Retrieved February 8, 2021, from https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/26/business/global/26luxury.html

  • Aliyev, F., Ürkmez, T., & Wagner, R. (2018). Luxury brands do not glitter equally for everyone. Journal of Brand Management, 25(4), 337–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Factory [Film]. (2019). Netflix. Retrieved from https://www.netflix.com/sg/title/81090071.

  • Amos, D. P. (2010). Aflac’s CEO explains how he fell for the duck. Harvard Business Review, 88(1–2), 131–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arruda, W. (June 6 2019). How to keep your brand messaging consistent. Forbes. Retrieved June 18, 2020 from https://www.forbes.com/sites/williamarruda/2019/06/06/how-to-keep-your-brand-messaging-consistent/

  • Bochner, S. (1994). Cross-cultural differences in the self concept: A test of Hofstede’s individualism/collectivism distinction. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 25(2), 273–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, M. H., & Cheung, T.-S. (1983). College students’ spontaneous self-concept: The effect of culture among respondents in Hong Kong, Japan, and the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 14(2), 153–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, R., & Smith, P. B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 111–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bu, N., Craig, T. J., & Peng, T. K. (2001a). Acceptance of supervisory direction in typical workplace situations: A comparison of U.S., Taiwanese and PRC employees. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 1(2), 131–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bu, N., Craig, T. J., & Peng, T. K. (2001b). Reaction to authority. Thunderbird International Business Review, 43(6), 773–795.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bu, N., & Roy, J.-P. (2008). Chinese managers’ career success networks: The impact of key tie characteristics on structure and interaction practices. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19, 1088–1107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Candelon, F., Aguiar, M., Hsu, J. T., Lee, K. J., Meyer, M., Lacanna, S., & De Bondt, M. (May 6 2020). The role of trust in the COVID-19 economic recovery: Lessons from Asia. BCG Henderson Institute. Retrieved June 27, 2020, from https://www.bcg.com/en-ca/publications/2020/lessons-from-asia-economic-recovery-post-covid-19.aspx

  • Character Media. (August 13 2014). The lipstick that sold out worldwide thanks to K-drama ‘my love’ is finally back. Retrieved April 14, 2020, from https://charactermedia.com/the-lipstick-that-sold-out-worldwide-thanks-to-k-drama-my-love-is-finally-back-on-the-market/

  • Chen, C. C. (1995). New trends in rewards allocation preferences: A Sino-U.S. comparison. The Academy of Management Journal, 38(2), 408–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, C. C., Meindl, J. R., & Hui, H. (1998). Deciding on equity or parity: A test of situational, cultural, and individual factors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19(2), 115–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, H., & Schweitzer, J. C. (1996). Cultural values reflected in Chinese and U.S. television commercials. Journal of Advertising Research, 36(3), 27–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiu, L. H. (1972). A cross-cultural comparison of cognitive styles in Chinese and American children. International Journal of Psychology, 7(4), 235–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiu, C.-Y., Leung, A. K.-Y., & Hong, Y.-Y. (2011). Cultural processes: An overview. In A. K.-Y. Leung, C.-Y. Chiu, & Y.-Y. Hong (Eds.), Cultural processes: A social psychological perspective (pp. 3–22). Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Choi, I., & Nisbett, R. E. (1998). Situational salience and cultural differences in the correspondence bias and actor-observer bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24(9), 949–960.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chua, H. F., Boland, J. E., & Nisbett, R. E. (2005). Cultural variation in eye movements during scene perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(35), 12,629–12,633.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cousins, S. D. (1989). Culture and self-perception in Japan and the United States. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 124–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Danziger, P. (2020). Fate of luxury depends on China, but continued success there is not guaranteed. Forbes.com. May 15. https://www.forbes.com/sites/pamdanziger/2020/05/15/fate-of-luxury-depends-on-china-but-continued-success-there-is-notguaranteed/

  • de Mooij, M., & Hofstede, G. (2002). Convergence and divergence in consumer behavior: Implications for international retailing. Journal of Retailing, 78(1), 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4359(01)00067-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deutsch, M. (1975). Equity, equality, and need: What determines which value will be used as basis for distributive justice? Journal of Social Issues, 31(3), 137–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doctoroff, T. (May 18 2012). What the Chinese want. Wall Street Journal (Online). Retrieved May 7, 2017, from https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303360504577408493723814210

  • Earley, P. C. (1993). East meets west meets Mideast: Further explorations of collectivistic and individualistic work groups. Academy of Management Journal, 36(2), 319–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., Chirkov, V. I., Kim, Y., & Sheldon, K. M. (2001). A cross-cultural analysis of avoidance (relative to approach) personal goals. Psychological Science, 12(6), 505–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farh, J.-I., Dobbins, G. H., & Cheng, B.-S. (1991). Cultural relativity in action: A comparison of self-rating made by Chinese and U.S. Workers. Personnel Psychology, 44(1), 129–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, A. P. (1992). The four elementary forms of sociality: Framework for a unified theory of social relations. Psychological Review, 99(4), 689–723.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, A. P., Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., & Nisbett, R. E. (1998). The cultural matrix of social psychology. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., pp. 915–981). McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzsimmons, S., Thomas, D. C., & Liao, Y. (June 12 2018). Bicultural employees can be your organization’s secret to success. The Conversation. Retrieved June 28, 2020 from https://theconversation.com/bicultural-employees-can-be-your-organizations-secret-to-success-97154

  • Frith, K. T., & Sengupta, S. (1991). Individualism and advertising: A cross-cultural comparison. Media Asia, 18(4), 191–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, E., & Peterson, R. B. (1992). China and Taiwan: Common culture but divergent economic success. In B. B. Prasaol (Ed.), Advances in international comparative management (Vol. 7, pp. 185–201). JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Errens, J. (Jan 28 2016). Kit Kat: Mobile holograms. Stylus. Retrieved February 12, 2021, from https://www.stylus.com/kit-kat-mobile-holograms

  • Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures: Selected essays. Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geertz, C. (1975). On the nature of anthropological understanding: Not extraordinary empathy but readily observable symbolic forms enable the anthropologist to grasp the unarticulated concepts that inform the lives and cultures of other peoples. American Scientist, 63(1), 47–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gelfand, M. J., Erez, M., & Aycan, Z. (2007). Cross-cultural organizational behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 479–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gelfand, M. J., Jackson, J. C., Pan, X., Nau, D., Pieper, D., Denison, E., Dagher, M., Van Lange, P. A. M., Chiu, C.-Y., & Wang, M. (January 29 2021). The relationship between cultural tightness–looseness and COVID-19 cases and deaths: A global analysis. The Lancet Planetary Health. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30301-6.

  • Guo, T., Ji, L.-J., Spina, R., & Zhang, Z. (2012). Culture, temporal focus, and values of the past and the future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(8), 1030–1040.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurevich, Y. S. (1969). The decision problem for the logic of predicates and of operations. Algebra and Logic, 8(3), 160–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, V. L., & Sanders, J. (1992). Everyday justice: Responsibility and the individual in Japan and the United States. Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Han, S.-P., & Shavitt, S. (1994). Persuasion and culture: Advertising appeals in individualistic and collectivistic societies. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 30(4), 326–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harbeck, R. (June 28 2019). The evolution of China’s coffee industry. US-China Today. Retrieved April 13, 2020, from https://uschinatoday.org/features/2019/06/28/the-evolution-of-chinas-coffee-industry/

  • Heine, S. J. (2003). An exploration of cultural variation in self-enhancing and self-improving motivations. In V. Murphy-Berman & J. J. Berman (Eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation series (Vol. 49)—Cross-cultural differences in perspectives on the self (pp. 118–145). University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heine, S. J., & Hamamura, T. (2007). In search of east Asian self-enhancement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(1), 4–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R. (1997). Culture, dissonance, and self-affirmation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(4), 389–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1999). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard? Psychological Review, 106(4), 766–794.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heine, S. J., & Renshaw, K. (2002). Interjudge agreement, self-enhancement, and liking: Cross-cultural divergences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(5), 578–587.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. H. (1980). Culture and organizations. International Studies of Management & Organization, 10(4), 15–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. H. (1984). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values (Abr. ed.). Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. H., & Bond, M. H. (1988). The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth. Organizational Dynamics, 16(4), 5–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hong, Y.-Y., Morris, M. W., Chiu, C.-Y., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2000). Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. American Psychologist, 55(7), 709–720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • House, R. J., Javidan, M., Hanges, P. J., & Dorfman, P. (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: An introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37(1), 3–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, C.-M., & Park, D. (2013). Cultural influences on Facebook photographs. International Journal of Psychology, 48(3), 334–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hui, C. H., Triandis, H. C., & Yee, C. (1991). Cultural differences in reward allocation: Is collectivism the explanation? British Journal of Social Psychology, 30(2), 145–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hwang, K. K. (2001). The deep structure of Confucianism: A social psychological approach. Asian Philosophy, 11(3), 179–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. H. Holt and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janelli, R. L. (1993). Making capitalism: The social and cultural construction of a south Korean conglomerate. Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Japan Info. (September 7 2015). Radio taiso: Japan’s morning exercise ritual. Retrieved April 12, 2020, from https://jpninfo.com/20626

  • Japan-guide.com. n.d. Giving gifts. Retrieved April 14, 2020, from https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2004.html

  • Ji, L. J. (2005). Culture and lay theories of change. In R. M. Sorrentino, D. Cohen, J. M. Olson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Culture and social behavior: The tenth Ontario symposium (pp. 117–135). Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ji, L. J. (2008). The leopard cannot change his spots, or can he? Culture and the development of lay theories of change. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(5), 613–622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ji, L. J., Guo, T., Zhang, Z., & Messervey, D. (2009). Looking into the past: Cultural differences in perception and representation of past information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(4), 761–769.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ji, L. J., Hong, E. K., Guo, T., Zhang, Z., Su, Y., & Li, Y. (2019). Culture, psychological proximity to the past and future, and self-continuity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49(4), 735–747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ji, L. J., & Kaulius, M. (2013). Judgment and decision making across cultures. Advances in Psychological Science, 21(3), 381–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ji, L. J., Lee, A., & Guo, T. (2010). The thinking styles of Chinese people. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), Oxford library of psychology. The Oxford handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 155–167). Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ji, L. J., Nisbett, R. E., & Su, Y. (2001). Culture, change, and prediction. Psychological Science, 12(6), 450–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ji, L. J., Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (2000). Culture, control, and perception of relationships in the environment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(5), 943–955.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ji, L. J., Zhang, Z., & Guo, T. (2008). To buy or to sell: Cultural differences in stock market decisions based on stock price trends. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 21(4), 399–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ji, L. J., Zhang, Z., & Nisbett, R. E. (2004). Is it culture or is it language? Examination of language effects in cross-cultural research on categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(1), 57–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang, W., Dev, C. S., & Rao, V. R. (2002). Brand extension and customer loyalty: Evidence from the lodging industry. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 43(4), 5–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, E. E., & Harris, V. A. (1967). The attribution of attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 3(1), 1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joy, A. (November 4 2016). How Japan became obsessed with KitKat. Culture Trip. Retrieved April 14, 2020, from https://theculturetrip.com/asia/japan/articles/how-japan-became-obsessed-with-kitkat/

  • Kanagawa, C., Cross, S. E., & Markus, H. R. (2001). “Who am I?” The cultural psychology of the conceptual self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(1), 90–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kashima, Y., Siegal, M., Tanaka, K., & Kashima, E. S. (1992). Do people believe behaviours are consistent with attitudes? Towards a cultural psychology of attribution processes. British Journal of Social Psychology, 31(2), 111–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keegan, W. J. (1989). Global marketing management (4th ed.) Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H., & Markus, H. R. (1999). Deviance or uniqueness, harmony or conformity? A cultural analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(4), 785–800.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J. Y., & Nam, S. H. (1998). The concept and dynamics of face: Implications for organizational behavior in Asia. Organization Science, 9(4), 522–534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitayama, S., Duffy, S., Kawamura, T., & Larsen, J. T. (2003). Perceiving an object and its context in different cultures: A cultural look at new look. Psychological Science, 14(3), 201–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., Matsumoto, H., & Norasakkunkit, V. (1997). Individual and collective processes in the construction of the self: Self-enhancement in the United States and self-criticism in Japan. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(6), 1245–1267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kraar, L., & Berlin, R. K. (1989). Japan’s gung-ho U.S. car plants. Fortune, 119(3), 98–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kwon, M., Saluja, G., & Adaval, R. (2015). Who said what: The effects of cultural mindsets on perceptions of endorser–message relatedness. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 25(3), 389–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latané, B., Williams, K. D., & Harkins, S. G. (1979). Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(6), 822–832.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, A. Y., Aaker, J. L., & Gardner, W. L. (2000). The pleasures and pains of distinct self-construals: The role of interdependence in regulatory focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(6), 1122–1134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, A., Ji, L. J., Li, Y., & Zhang, Z. (2019). Fear goliath or David? Inferring competence from demeanor across cultures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 46(7), 1074–1089.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, F., Hallahan, M., & Herzog, T. (1996). Explaining real-life events: How culture and domain shape attributions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(7), 732–741.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lert, C. (2014). Toyota exercise. YouTube, October 18. https://youtu.be/gLbCVTW0O0c. Accessed 23 July 2021.

  • Leung, A. K.-Y., & Cohen, D. (2011). Within- and between-culture variation: Individual differences and the cultural logics of honor, face, and dignity cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(3), 507–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, K. (1997). Negotiation and reward allocations across cultures. In P. C. Earley & M. Erez (Eds.), New perspectives on international industrial/organizational psychology (pp. 640–675). The New Lexington Press/Jossey-Bass Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leung, K., Bhagat, R. S., Buchan, N. R., Erez, M., & Gibson, C. B. (2005). Culture and international business: Recent advances and their implications for future research. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(4), 357–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, K., & Bond, M. H. (1984). The impact of cultural collectivism on reward allocation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47(4), 793–804.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Xin, K. R., Tsui, A., & Hambrick, D. C. (1999). Building effective international joint venture leadership teams in China. Journal of World Business, 34(1), 52–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, J. R. (1989). Employee work attitudes and management practice in the U.S. and Japan: Evidence from a large comparative survey. California Management Review, 32(1), 89–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, R. (1989). The Confucian renaissance. The Federation Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, J. (2010). Cultural variation in the visual aspects of television commercials: Comparing the use and effect of field information in Chinese and US television commercials. (Publication No. 896) [Master’s thesis, The Graduate School of Clemson University]. All Theses. Retrieved from https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_theses/896.

  • Liu, X., Gao, L., Lu, J., & Wei, Y. (2015). The role of highly skilled migrants in the process of inter-firm knowledge transfer across borders. Journal of World Business, 50(1), 56–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luan, L., Kim, A., & Zipser, D. (April 25 2019). China luxury report 2019: How young Chinese consumers are reshaping global luxury. McKinsey & Company. Retrieved May 21, 2020, from https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/china/how-young-chinese-consumers-are-reshaping-global-luxury

  • Ma, R. (1996). Saying “yes” for “no” and “no” for “yes”: A Chinese rule. Journal of Pragmatics, 25(2), 257–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, V., & Schoeneman, T. J. (1997). Individualism versus collectivism: A comparison of Kenyan and American self-concepts. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 19(2), 261–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madden, N., & Madden, N. (2010, March 4). Soy-sauce-flavored Kit Kats? In Japan, they’re no. 1. Ad Age. Retrieved April 14, 2020, from https://adage.com/article/global-news/marketing-nestle-flavors-kit-kat-japan-markets/142461

  • Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marx, W. D. (Jan 24 2009). The future of luxury in Japan. Luxury Society Website. Retrieved February 17, 2021, from https://www.luxurysociety.com/en/articles/2009/01/the-future-of-luxury-in-japan/

  • Masuda, T., Ellsworth, P. C., Mesquita, B., Leu, J., Tanida, S., & Van de Veerdonk, E. (2008a). Placing the face in context: Cultural differences in the perception of facial emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(3), 365–381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masuda, T., Gonzalez, R., Kwan, L., & Nisbett, R. E. (2008b). Culture and aesthetic preference: Comparing the attention to context of east Asians and Americans. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(9), 1260–1275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masuda, T., & Nisbett, R. E. (2001). Attending holistically versus analytically: Comparing the context sensitivity of Japanese and Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 922–934.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, M. (1998). New gold mountain. Far Eastern Economic Review, 161(28), 76–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyamoto, Y., & Kitayama, S. (2002). Cultural variation in correspondence bias: The critical role of attitude diagnosticity of socially constrained behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(5), 1239–1248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyamoto, Y., Nisbett, R. E., & Masuda, T. (2006). Culture and the physical environment: Holistic versus analytic perceptual affordances. Psychological Science, 17(2), 113–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyamoto, Y., Knoepfler, C. A., Ishii, K., & Ji, L. J. (2013). Cultural variation in the focus on goals versus processes of actions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(6), 707–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monga, A. B., & John, D. R. (2007). Cultural differences in brand extension evaluation: The influence of analytic versus holistic thinking. Journal of Consumer Research, 33(4), 529–536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morling, B., Kitayama, S., & Miyamoto, Y. (2002). Cultural practices emphasize influence in the United States and adjustment in Japan. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(3), 311–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, M. W., & Peng, K. (1994). Culture and cause: American and Chinese attributions for social and physical events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(6), 949–971.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moutinho, L., & Chien, C. S. (2007). Problems in marketing: Applying key concepts and techniques. Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, D. R., Trudeau, R., & Schaller, M. (2011). On the origins of cultural differences in conformity: Four tests of the pathogen prevalence hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(3), 318–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nang, K. K. (February 23 2018). Japanese morning radio exercise [video]. YouTube. Retrieved April 12, 2020, from https://youtu.be/UwYVSWrk-JE

  • NBC News. (December 13 2006). Home Depot enters China’s market, buys chain.. Retrieved February 27, 2021, from http://www.nbcnews.com/id/16187188/ns/business-world_business/t/home-depot-enters-chinas-market-buys-chain/

  • Nguyen, A.-M. D., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2012). Biculturalism and adjustment: A meta-analysis. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(1), 122–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nisbett, R. E. (2003). The geography of thought: How Asians and westerners think differently-- and why. Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pasadeos, Y., & Chi, M.-C. (1992). Traditional vs. Western appeals in Chinese magazine advertisements: Hong Kong and Taiwan. In L. N. Reid (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1992 conference of the American Academy of Advertising (pp. 166–169) American Academy of Advertising.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54(9), 741–754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center. (January 14 2004). Americans and Canadians. Accessed February 10, 2021, from https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2004/01/14/americans-and-canadians/

  • PublicidadJapon. (n.d.). Aflac commercial. YouTube. Retrieved February 27, 2021, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LOnTM88qSO4

  • Rao, T. (Oct 24 2018). Big in Japan. New York Times Magazine. Retrieved April 14, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/10/24/magazine/candy-kit-kat-japan.html

  • Rojas, R. (May 3 2020). Masks become a flash point in the virus culture wars. The New York Times. Retrieved June 27, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/03/us/coronavirus-masks-protests.html

  • Ross, P. (2020). Barriers to entry: Overcoming challenges and achieving breakthroughs in a Chinese workplace. Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Saiidi, U. (Aug 23 2018). Inside the world’s largest Starbucks, which draws long lines in Shanghai. CNBC. Retrieved April 14, 2020, from https://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/24/inside-the-worlds-largest-starbucks-the-reserve-roastery-in-shanghai.html

  • Schug, J., Yuki, M., & Maddux, W. (2010). Relational mobility explains between- and within-culture differences in self-disclosure to close friends. Psychological Science, 21(10), 1471–1478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Setiono, H. (October 18 2016). Taisou# senam sehat jepang [Taisou# Japanese healthy exercise] [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved February 27, 2021, from https://youtu.be/hcjWmHu44Qg

    Google Scholar 

  • Shao, A. T., Raymond, M. A., & Taylor, C. (1999). Shifting advertising appeals in Taiwan. Journal of Advertising Research, 39(6), 61–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shoji, K. (February 10 2018). Gift-giving etiquette in Japan is driving some recipients crazy. The Japan Times. Retrieved April 14, 2020, from https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/02/10/national/media-national/gift-giving-etiquette-japan-driving-recipients-crazy/.

  • Shweder, R. A. (1991). Thinking through cultures: Expeditions in cultural psychology. Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singelis, T. M., Triandis, H. C., Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Gelfand, M. J. (1995). Horizontal and vertical dimensions of individualism and collectivism: A theoretical and measurement refinement. Cross-Cultural Research: The Journal of Comparative Social Science, 29(3), 240–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N., & Matsuo, H. (2004). Measuring cultural adaptation on the web: A content analytic study of U.S. and Japanese web sites. Journal of Business Research, 57(8), 864–872.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Somogyi, S., Li, E., Johnson, T., Bruwer, J., & Bastian, S. (2011). The underlying motivations of Chinese wine consumer behaviour. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 23(4), 473–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • South China Morning Post. (June 23 2014). South Korean TV dramas exploit success to push products across Asia. Retrieved April 12, 2020, from https://www.scmp.com/business/companies/article/1538513/south-korean-tv-dramas-exploit-success-push-products-across-asia

  • Suh, E. M. (2002). Culture, identity consistency, and subjective Well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6), 1378–1391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swaminathan, V., Fox, R. J., & Reddy, S. K. (2001). The impact of brand extension introduction on choice. Journal of Marketing, 65(4), 1–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The Economist. (October 132018). Full of beans (p. 65).

    Google Scholar 

  • The Luxury Channel. (n.d.). Luxury in China: K-pop non-stop. Retrieved April 18, 2020, from https://theluxurychannel.com/magazine/luxury-in-china-k-pop-non-stop/

  • Torelli, C. J., Özsomer, A., Carvalho, S. W., Keh, H. T., & Maehle, N. (2012). Brand concepts as representations of human values: Do cultural congruity and compatibility between values matter? Journal of Marketing, 76(4), 92–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H. C. (1988). Collectivism v. individualism: A reconceptualization of a basic concept in cross-cultural social psychology. In G. K. Verma & C. Bagley (Eds.), Cross-cultural studies of personality, attitudes and cognition (pp. 60–95). Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96(3), 506–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H. C. (1990). Cross-cultural studies of individualism and collectivism. In J. J. Berman (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation series (Vol. 37) - Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 41–133). University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H. C., & Gelfand, M. (1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 118–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H. C., McCusker, C., & Hui, C. H. (1990). Multimethod probes of individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(5), 1006–1020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trompenaars, F., & Woolliams, P. (2004). Business across cultures. John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, H., Masuda, T., Ito, K., & Rashid, M. (2012). How much information? East Asian and north American cultural products and information search performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(12), 1539–1551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Q. (2004). The emergence of cultural self-constructs: Autobiographical memory and self-description in European American and Chinese children. Developmental Psychology, 40(1), 3–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, D., Akande, A., Fleming, J., Ismail, M., Lefner, K., Regmi, M., Watson, S., Yu, J., Adair, J., Cheng, C., Gerong, A., McInerney, D., Mpofu, E., Sinch-Sengupta, S., & Wondimu, H. (1998). Cultural dimensions, gender, and the nature of self-concept: A fourteen-country study. International Journal of Psychology, 33(1), 17–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, M. (December 17 2006). High-end fashion on the (fairly) cheap. The Japan Times. Retrieved February 8, 2021, from https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2006/12/17/to-be-sorted/high-end-fashion-on-the-fairly-cheap/

  • Witkin, H. A. (1969). Social influences in the development of cognitive style. In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 687–706). Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, H., Stamatogiannakis, A., & Chattopadhyay, A. (2015). Pursuing attainment versus maintenance goals: The interplay of self-construal and goal type on consumer motivation. Journal of Consumer Research, 42(1), 93–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yates, F. J., Ji, L. J., Oka, T., Lee, J. W., Shinotsuka, H., & Sieck, W. (2010). Indecisiveness and culture: Incidence, values, and thoroughness. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 41(3), 428–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, Y., Sun, H., Goodman, S., Chen, S., & Ma, H. (2009). Chinese choices: A survey of wine consumers in Beijing. International Journal of Wine Business Research, 21(2), 155–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y., & Gelb, B. D. (1996). Matching advertising appeals to culture: The influence of products’ use conditions. Journal of Advertising, 25(3), 29–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The completion of this chapter was supported by an Academic Research Fund Tier 1 grant (RG 87/14) to Lee. We are also grateful for the assistance of the Research Office at the Smith School of Business at Queen’s University for providing manuscript copy editing service.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Program of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

    Albert Lee

  2. Department of Psychology, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada

    Li-Jun Ji

  3. The Stephen J. R. Smith School of Business, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada

    Nailin Bu

Authors
  1. Albert Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Li-Jun Ji
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nailin Bu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Albert Lee .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON, Canada

    Terry Wu

  2. Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada

    Nailin Bu

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Lee, A., Ji, LJ., Bu, N. (2022). The Impact of Self-Construals and Thinking Styles on Business and Management Practices: A Comparison of East Asia and North America. In: Wu, T., Bu, N. (eds) International Business in the New Asia-Pacific. Advances in Theory and Practice of Emerging Markets. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-87621-0_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation