Skip to main content

What Is Hate Crime in the Context of Sex Work?

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Sex Work and Hate Crime

Part of the book series: Palgrave Hate Studies ((PAHS))

  • 351 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter sets out the hate crime literature, describing the development of the hate crime theoretical lens and the developments around concepts such as intersectionality and ‘perceived vulnerability’. We chart how the theoretical academic literature has contested definitions around who are hate crime groups, characteristics and identities. Within this contested space we discuss the relevance to sex workers and their experiences of targeted hostility. We do this in the context of evaluating the legal appropriateness in the UK and any possible changes that may happen in the future in terms of law reform and opening out of the current legal definitions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 69.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 69.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Association of Chief Police Officers. (2005). Hate crime delivering a quality service good practice and tactical guidance. Home Office Police Standards Unit and ACPO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, M. (1993). Violence and vulnerability: Conditions of work for streetworking prostitutes. Sociology of Health and Illness, 15(5), 683–705.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benson, C., & Matthews, R. (2000). Police and prostitution: Vice squads in Britain. In R. Weitzer (Ed.), Sex for Sale: Prostitution, pornography and the sex industry (pp. 254–264). Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boff, A. (2012). Silence on violence: Improving the safety of women—The policing of off street sex work and sex trafficking in London. Retrieved May 10, 2021, from https://www.nswp.org/resource/silence-violence-improving-safety-women

  • Bryce, A., Campbell, R., Pitcher, J., Laing, M., Irving, A., Brandon, J., & Safrazyan, S. (2015). Male escorting, safety and National Ugly Mugs: Queering policy and practice on the reporting of crimes against sex workers. In M. Laing, K. Pilcher, & N. Smith (Eds.), Queer sex work (pp. 245–254). Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, R., Smith, L., Leacy, B., Ryan, M., & Stoica, B. (2020). Not collateral damage: Trends in violence and hate crimes experienced by sex workers in the Republic of Ireland. Irish Journal of Sociology. https://doi.org/10.1177/0791603520939794

  • Chakraborti, N. (2010). Future developments for hate crime thinking: Who, what and why. In N. Chakraborti (Ed.), Hate Crime: concepts, policy, future directions (pp. 1–14). Willan Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chakraborti, N. (2015). Framing the boundaries of hate crime. In N. Hall, A. Corb, P. Giannasi, & H. G. D. Grieve (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook on hate crime (pp. 13–23). Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chakraborti, N., & Garland, J. (Eds.). (2009). Hate crime: Impact, causes and responses. Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chakraborti, N., & Garland, J. (2012). Reconceptualizing hate crime victimization through the lens of vulnerability and ‘difference. Theoretical Criminology, 16(4), 499–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chakraborti, N., & Garland, J. (2015). Hate crime: Impact, causes and responses (2nd edition). Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • College of Policing. (2014). Hate Crime Operational Guidance. College of Policing Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connelly, L., Kamerāde, D., & Sanders, T. (2021). Violent and nonviolent crimes against sex workers: The influence of the sex market on reporting practices in the United Kingdom. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(7–8), NP3938–NP3963.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crown Prosecution Service. (n.d.). https://www.cps.gov.uk/crime-info/hate-crime

  • Garland, J. (2010). The victimisation of goths and the boundaries of hate crime. In N. Chakraborti (Ed.), Hate crime, concepts, policy, future directions (pp. 40–57). Willan Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garland, J., Chakraborti, N., & Hardy, S. J. (2015). ‘It felt like a little war’: Reflections on violence against alternative subcultures. Sociology, 49(6), 1065–1080.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerstenfeld, P. B. (2004). Hate crimes: Causes, controls, and controversies. SAGE Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerstenfeld, P. B. (2013). Hate crime: Causes, controls and controversies (3rd ed.). Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gira Grant, M. (2014). Playing the whore: The work of sex work. Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grattet, R., & Jenness, V. (2008). Transforming symbolic law into organizational action: Hate crime policy and law enforcement practice. Social Forces, 87(1), 501–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, N. (2005). Hate Crime. Willan Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Home Office. (2012). Call to end violence against women and girls: Taking action—The next chapter. HM Government.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keighley, R. (2020). The dark side of social media: the problem of LGBT+ online hate. Blog for International Network of Hate Studies. Retrieved May 10, 2021, from https://internationalhatestudies.com/hcaw-blog-5-the-dark-side-of-social-media-the-problem-of-lgbt-online-hate/

  • Krüsi, A., Kerr, T., Taylor, C., Rhodes, T., & Shannon, K. (2016). ‘They won’t change it back in their heads that we’re trash’: The intersection of sex work-related stigma and evolving policing strategies. Sociology of Health and Illness, 38(7), 1137–1150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lancaster, S. (2014). Reshaping hate crime policy and practice: lessons from a grassroots campaign. IIn N. Chakraborti, & J. Garland (Eds.), Responding to hate crime: The case for connecting policy and research (pp. 39–54). Policy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, B. (2002). Cybercrime: A legal and historical analysis of extremists’ use of computer networks in America. The American Behavioral Scientist, 45(6), 958–988.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, B., & McDevitt, J. (2003). Hate crimes: The rising tide of bigotry and bloodshed. Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, R., Rowe, M., & Wiper, C. (2018). Misogyny online: Extending the boundaries of hate crime. Journal of gender-based violence, 2(3), 519–536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, R., Rowe, M., & Wiper, C. (2019). Online/offline continuities: Exploring misogyny and hate in online abuse of feminists. In Online othering (pp. 121–143). Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Mason-Bish, H. (2010). Future challenges for hate crime policy: Lessons from the past. In N. Chakraborti (Ed.), Hate Crime: concepts, policy, future directions (pp. 58–77). Willan Publishing. Cullompton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mullany, L., & Trickett, L. (2018). Misogyny hate crime evaluation report. University of Nottingham and Nottingham Trent University. Retrieved May 10, 2021, from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5fd74b5ffd756c1ce4dbdd27/t/600eb1b6d7b0ac5d70bb07ae/1611575737635/Misogyny+Hate+Crime+Evaluation+Report+June+2018.pdf

  • National Police Chiefs Council. (2019). National policing sex work and prostitution guidance, College of Policing. https://www.library.college.police.uk/docs/appref/Sex-Work-and-Prostitution-Guidance-Jan-2019.Pdf.

  • Perry, B. (2001). In the name of hate: Understanding hate crimes. Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, B. (2009). The sociology of hate theoretical approaches. In B. Levin (Ed.), Hate crimes: Understanding and defining hate crime (pp. 55–76). Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ray, L., & Smith, D. (2001). Racist offenders and the politics of ‘hate crime’. Law and Critique, 12(3), 203–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roulstone, A., Thomas, P., & Balderstone, S. (2011). Between hate and vulnerability: Unpacking the British criminal justice system’s construction of disablist hate crime. Disability and Society, 26(3), 351–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, M. (2012). Policing, race and racism. Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, T., & Campbell, R. (2014). Editorial: The governance of commercial sex: Global trends of criminalisation, punitive enforcement, protection and rights. Criminology and Criminal Justice (Special edition), 14(5), 535–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheffield, C. (1995). Hate violence. In P. Rothenberg (Ed.), Race class and gender in the United States (pp. 388–397). St Martin’s Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wertans, E. (2020). Homeless hate: The pandemic’s impact on prejudice. Blog for International Network of Hate Studies. Retrieved May 10, 2021, from https://internationalhatestudies.com/hcaw-blog-6-homeless-hate-the-pandemics-impact-on-prejudice/

    Google Scholar 

  • Zempi, I., & Smith, J. (2021). Misogyny as Hate Crime. Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Campbell, R., Sanders, T. (2021). What Is Hate Crime in the Context of Sex Work?. In: Sex Work and Hate Crime. Palgrave Hate Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86949-6_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86949-6_2

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-86948-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-86949-6

  • eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics