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Activist Intellectuals and the Quest to Save the Nation

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Social Justice at Apartheid’s Dawn

Part of the book series: African Histories and Modernities ((AHAM))

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Abstract

‘Activist Intellectuals and the Quest to Save the Nation’ explores how Africans employed narratives, poems, musical compositions, and editorials to address the physiological and physical impact of segregation. Ideas are juxtaposed alongside men and other women to underscore similarities and differences in thought. Furthermore, this chapter offers several possibilities for saving the nation even at a time when governmental policies, intra-tensions, and political disabilities threatened liberation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Njabulo S. Ndebele, Forward, Sol T Plaatje and the ‘power of all’ in Janet Remmington, Brian Willan and Njabulo Ndebele, Sol Plaatje’s Native Life in South Africa: Past and Present (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 2016): ix–xiv.

  2. 2.

    “Africans Resist White Control,” https://www.facinghistory.org/confronting-apartheid/chapter-1/africans-resist-white-control, date accessed 16 April 2021 and M. J. Daymond, Dorothy Driver et al., Women Writing Africa: The Southern Region (New York: The Feminist Press 2003, 161–162.

  3. 3.

    Zubeida Jaffer, Beauty of the Heart, 100.

  4. 4.

    Solomon Tshekisho Plaatje, https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/solomon-tshekisho-plaatje, date accessed 28 November 2021. In 1901, Solomon Tshekisho Plaatje, who served as clerk, as an interpreter, and as a teacher among other titles, established Koranta ea Becoana, a Setswana-English weekly that he edited for at least six years. His other works included “Mhudi, An Epic of South African Native Life a Hundred Years Ago (1930), The Mote and the Beam: An Epic on Sex-Relationship ‘Twixt White and Black in British South Africa (1921), and translations of four Shakespeare plays into Setswana”.

  5. 5.

    Solomon T. Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa: Before and Since the European War and the Boer Rebellion, http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1452, date accessed 6 June 2018 (hereafter Native Life in South Africa). See T. R. H. Davenport, The Beginnings of Urban Segregation in South Africa: The Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923 and Its Background (Grahamstown: Rhodes University, 1971).

  6. 6.

    A. B. Xuma: “Bridging the Gap between White and Black in South Africa” (1930) Commentary by Harvey Feinberg, Connecticut State University https://www.milestonedocuments.com/documents/view/a-b-xumas-bridging-the-gap-between-white-and-black-in-south-africa/ date accessed 11 November 2020.

  7. 7.

    Solomon T. Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa: Before and Since the European War and the Boer Rebellion, http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1452, date accessed 6 June 2018 (hereafter Native Life in South Africa).

  8. 8.

    Native Life in South Africa online.

  9. 9.

    Ibid. See Kenneth J. Doka, Disenfranchised Grief: Recognizing Hidden Sorrow (Maryland: Lexington Books, 1989), 3.

  10. 10.

    Dawne Y. Curry, Apartheid on a Black Isle: Removal and Resistance in Alexandra, South Africa (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), Chapter 5: They Died Horribly, 101–115. See Dawne Y. Curry, “When Apartheid Interfered with Funerals: We Found Ways to Grieve in Alexandra, South Africa,” International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 2, 2, (2007), 245–252. I coined the term oral obituary to discuss how narrators who stood before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) explained how people died rather than how they lived. These tribunals, which were held in different cities and townships throughout South Africa, document the atrocities that occurred under apartheid from 1960 to 1994. When Irene Tukie March, Margaret Madlana, and others offered testimonies before the TRC, they discuss the daily routines, eating habits, pastimes, health conditions, and other mundane activities that their sons Philip March and Bongani Madlana carried out before they brutally passed away.

  11. 11.

    A. J. Christopher, Segregation and Cemeteries in Port Elizabeth, South Africa, The Geographical Journal, 161, 1 (March 1995): 38.

  12. 12.

    Siyinbinza iAfrika (We’re Stabbing Africa!) Umteteli waBantu, August 2, 1924, 8; see also Jeff Opland, The Nation’s Bounty, 178.

  13. 13.

    Ibid.

  14. 14.

    M. J. Daymond, Dorothy Driver et al, Women Writing Africa, 161.

  15. 15.

    Ibid.

  16. 16.

    See Elizabeth A. Eldredge, Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa, C. 1800–30: The ‘Mfecane’ Reconsidered, The Journal of African History, 33, 1 (1992): 1–35 and Julian Cobbing, The Mfecane As Alibi: Thoughts On Dithakong and Mbolompo, Journal of African History, 29 (1988): 487–519.

  17. 17.

    M. J. Daymond, Dorothy Driver et al., Women Writing Africa, 161.

  18. 18.

    Nontsizi Mgqwetho, Umteteli waBantu, December 8, 1923, 4.

  19. 19.

    M. J. Daymond, Dorothy Driver et al., Women Writing Africa, 161.

  20. 20.

    Nontsizi Mgqwetho, Umteteli waBantu, December 8, 1923, 4.

  21. 21.

    See Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2018).

  22. 22.

    Daymond, Dorothy Driver et al., Women Writing Africa, 161.

  23. 23.

    Ibid.

  24. 24.

    Ibid.

  25. 25.

    Ecclesiastes 3:20, https://biblehub.com/commentaries/ecclesiastes/3-20.htm, date accessed 29 May 2021.

  26. 26.

    Nancy J. Jacobs, African History Through Sources: Colonial Contexts and Everyday Experiences, c. 1850–1946 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 172.

  27. 27.

    Thembela Vokwana, A New Take on the Work of Caluza, https://www.newframe.com/a-new-take-on-the-work-of-caluza/#:~:text=Umteto%20we%20Land%20Act%20%28also%20known%20as%20Silusapo%2FiLand,Native%20National%20Congress%2C%20which%20later%20became%20the%20ANC, date accessed 26 November 2021.

  28. 28.

    Ntongela Masilela, An Outline of the New African Movement in South Africa (Trenton: Africa World Press, 2013), xii–xxv.

  29. 29.

    Nancy J. Jacobs, African History Through Sources, 173. See also Reuben Tholakele Caluza, “The Land Act Song (Umteto We Land Act)” (London: HMV Studio B, 1930).

  30. 30.

    Nontsizi Mgqwetho, Listen, Compatriots! In M. J. Daymond, Dorothy Driver et al (eds). Women Writing South Africa, 176–177.

  31. 31.

    Duncan Brown, My pen is the Tongue of a Skilful (sic) Poet: African-Christian Identity and the Poetry of Nontsizi Mgqwetho, English in Africa, 31, 1 (May 2004): 26.

  32. 32.

    Ibid.

  33. 33.

    Jeff Opland, The Nation’s Bounty: The Xhosa Poetry of Nontsizi Mgqwetho (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 2007).

  34. 34.

    Duncan Brown, My pen is the Tongue, 26.

  35. 35.

    Ibid.

  36. 36.

    Ibid., and Nontsizi (Cizama, Imbongikazi yakwaCizama) Mgqwetho https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/nontsizi-cizama-imbongikazi-yakwacizama-mgqwetho, date accessed 28 December 2020.

  37. 37.

    Daymond, Dorothy Driver et al., Women Writing Africa, 176–177.

  38. 38.

    Duncan Brown, My pen is the Tongue of a Skilful Poet, 28.

  39. 39.

    Margaret McCord, The Calling of Katie Makanya (Cape Town: David Philip, 1995), 215, op. cited Brandy Thomas, “Give Them Their Due”: Black Female Missionaries and The South African-American Nexus, 1920s-1930s, B. A. Thesis, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 2011, 67–68.

  40. 40.

    Jeff Opland, The Nation’s Bounty, 178.

  41. 41.

    M. J. Daymond, Dorothy Driver et al., Women Writing Africa, 161.

  42. 42.

    David Killingray, Significant Black South Africans in Britain before 1912: Pan-African Organisations and the Emergence of South Africa’s First Black Lawyers, South African Historical Journal, 64, 3 (2012): 403–404. See The New Age, November 4, 1897, 79.

  43. 43.

    Michael Savage, “The Imposition of the Pass Laws on the African Population in South Africa, 1916–1984.” African Affairs 85, 339 (April 1986): 181.

  44. 44.

    Ibid.

  45. 45.

    See Julia C. Wells, We Now Demand! The History of Women’s Resistance to Pass Laws (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 1993).

  46. 46.

    Julia C. Wells, We Now Demand! 21–22, 48, 53–54. See Native and Coloured Women of the Province of the Orange Free State, ‘Petition of the Native Coloured Women of the Province of the Orange Free State’ in M. J. Daymond, Dorothy Driver et al., Women Writing Africa, 158–161.

  47. 47.

    Julia C. Wells, We Now Demand!, 40–43.

  48. 48.

    Ibid.

  49. 49.

    Zubeida Jaffer, Beauty of the Heart: The Life and Times of Charlotte Mannya Maxeke (Cape Town: ZJ Books, 2016), 117.

  50. 50.

    “Amadodakazi kwaZulu,” Ilanga laseNatal, August 31, 1946, 9.

  51. 51.

    Jeff Opland, Nontsizi Mgqwetho, Listen Compatriots!, 176. Nontsizi (Cizama, Imbongikazi yakwaCizama) Mgqwetho https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/nontsizi-cizama-imbongikazi-yakwacizama-mgqwetho, 24 December 2020.

  52. 52.

    Ibid.

  53. 53.

    We’re Stabbing Africa, Umteteli waBantu, August 2, 1924, 8. See also https://www.poetryinternational.org/pi/poem/11272/auto/0/0/Nontsizi-Mgqwetho/Were-Stabbing-Africa/en/nocache, date accessed 28 December 2020.

  54. 54.

    Ibid.

  55. 55.

    See Leonard Thompson, A History of South Africa (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).

  56. 56.

    Thulani Sokombela, Looking Back and Looking Ahead: The Poetry of Nontsizi Mgqwetho http://www.ipedr.com/vol42/020-ICKCS2012-K10010.pdf date accessed 17 March 2021.

  57. 57.

    Yimbongikazi Nontsizi Mgqwetto, Mayibuye ! I Afrika ! Awu I. Umteteli waBantu, December 8, 1923, 4.

  58. 58.

    Ibid., and Duncan Brown, My Pen Is the Tongue of a Skilful Poet, 28–35.

  59. 59.

    Adu Boahen, African Perspectives on Colonialism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1989), 10–25.

  60. 60.

    Augusta Welden Comstock, ‘Africa in Spelman, Spelman in Africa,’ Spelman Archives, Missions, 12, 1 (January 1921): 23.

  61. 61.

    Ruth Isabel Seabury, Daughter of Africa, 78.

  62. 62.

    Nombonisa Gasa (ed.), Women in South Africa History (Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council, 2007).

  63. 63.

    Helen Bradford, Not a Nongqawuse Story: An Anti-heroine in Historical Perspective in Gasa (ed.), Women in South Africa History, 43–90.

  64. 64.

    Africa Information Service (ed.) Return to the Source: Selected Speeches by Amilcar Cabral (New York: New York University Press, 1973), https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv12pnps, date accessed 1 January 2021.

  65. 65.

    Adu Boahen, African Perspectives on Colonialism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1989), 10–25 and Robert O. Collins, Historical Problems in Imperial Africa, Problems in African History (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2007), 29–35.

  66. 66.

    Yimbongikazi Nontsizi Mgqwetto, Mayibuye ! I Afrika! and Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa.

  67. 67.

    Lee Hirsch, Director, Amandla: A Revolution in Four Part Harmony, 2002.

  68. 68.

    Deborah Walker King, African Americans, and the Culture of Pain, https://www.upress.virginia.edu/title/4442 date accessed 7 April 2021.

  69. 69.

    ‘Africa, My Native Land,’ and Nontsizi Mgqwetho, Listen, Compatriots! in M. J. Daymond, Dorothy Driver et al. (eds.) Women Writing South Africa, 161–162, 176–177.

  70. 70.

    What they said about missionary school pioneer Dr Charlotte Maxeke, https://gatewaystoanewworld.wordpress.com/2016/01/29/what-they-said-about-dr-charlotte-maxeke/ date accessed 15 April 2021.

  71. 71.

    Tsitsi Ella Jaji, Africa in Stereo, 50–52.

  72. 72.

    Margaret McCord, The Calling of Katie Makanya (Cape Town: David Philip, 1995), 54.

  73. 73.

    “Women’s Suffrage Bill,” Umteteli waBantu, March 28, 1921, 3.

  74. 74.

    Zubeida Jaffer, Beauty of the Heart, 138–139.

  75. 75.

    Nombonisa Gasa, Women in South African History, 146–148.

  76. 76.

    Nombonisa Gasa, Women in South African History, 146–147.

  77. 77.

    Zubeida Jaffer, Beauty of the Heart, 125–126.

  78. 78.

    Ibid., 126.

  79. 79.

    Ibid., 64.

  80. 80.

    Ibid. and W. E. B. Dubois, The Talented Tenth Essay, 1903.

  81. 81.

    Du Bois, The Talented Tenth Essay and Summary, https://study.com/academy/lesson/web-du-bois-the-talented-tenth-essay-summary-theory.html, date accessed 8 August 2020.

  82. 82.

    African Methodist Episcopal Church Overview, https://www.learnreligions.com/african-methodist-episcopal-church-699933, date accessed 11 May 2021.

  83. 83.

    Zubeida Jaffer, Beauty of the Heart, 62–63.

  84. 84.

    David Killingray, Significant Black South Africans in Britain before 1912, 401–402.

  85. 85.

    Ibid., 402.

  86. 86.

    Post Slavery Feminist Thought and the Pan-African Struggle (1892–1927): From Anna J. Cooper to Addie W. Hunton, https://www.globalresearch.ca/post-slavery-feminist-thought-and-the-pan-african-struggle-1892-1927-from-anna-j-cooper-to-addie-w-hunton/5575039, date accessed 15 December 2020, Hakim Adi, Pan-Africanism: A History (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2018), 20, Tembeka Ngcukaitabi, The Land is Ours: South Africa’s First Black Lawyer and the Birth of Constitutionalism (Cape Town: Penguin Books, 2018), 43-47, 51, 55, 56, 273.

  87. 87.

    David Killingray, Significant Black South Africans in Britain before 1912, 403. See PMBAR, Harriette Colenso Papers, A204 Box 33, letter dd. 2 August 1899.

  88. 88.

    Ibid.

  89. 89.

    See Saul Dubow, Illicit Union: Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa (Cambridge/WUP African Studies) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), William Beinart and Saul Dubow, Segregation and Apartheid in Twentieth Century South Africa (New York: Routledge, 1995), and Making A Voice: African Resistance To Segregation In South Africa (African Modernization and Development Series) (New York: Westview Press, 1997).

  90. 90.

    David Killingray, Significant Black South Africans in Britain before 1912, 404.

  91. 91.

    Ibid.

  92. 92.

    Africans Resist White Control, Chapter 1, https://www.facinghistory.org/confronting-apartheid/chapter-1/africans-resist-white-control, date accessed 28 December 2020.

  93. 93.

    Zubeida Jaffer, Beauty of the Heart, 101.

  94. 94.

    Mrs. C. M. Maxeke’s Extensive Tour, Bantu World, 12.

  95. 95.

    Zubeida Jaffer, Beauty of the Heart, 100.

  96. 96.

    Richard Ralston, Reviewed Work: Vukani Bantu! The Beginnings of Black Protest Politics in South Africa to 1912 by André Odendaal, Journal of Southern African Studies, 13, 3 (April 1987): 441.

  97. 97.

    Ibid.

  98. 98.

    Zubeida Jaffer, Beauty of the Heart, 100.

  99. 99.

    Nkosinathi Sithole, Beyond African nationalism: Isaiah Shembe’s hymns and African literature, Literator, 35, 1 (November 2014): 1–8, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296185928_Beyond_African_nationalism_Isaiah_Shembe%27s_hymns_and_African_literature, date accessed 2 March 2020.

  100. 100.

    John A. Williams, From the South African Past: Narratives, Documents and Debates (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997), 235.

  101. 101.

    John A. Williams, From the South African Past: Narratives, Documents and Debates, 236.

  102. 102.

    “Amadodakazi eMfume M. S.,” Ilanga laseNatal, February 5, 1944, 7–8.

  103. 103.

    See Keletso E. Atkins, Origins of the AmaWasha: the Zulu Washermen’s Guild in Natal, 1850–1910, Journal of African History, 27, 1 (March 1986): 41–57 and Charles Van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, 1886–1914, Vol. 1: New Babylon (Studies in the Social & Economic History of the Witwatersrand) (London: Longman Publishers, 1982).

  104. 104.

    Tsitsi Ella Jaji, Africa in Stereo: Modernism, Music, and Pan-African Solidarity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 51.

  105. 105.

    Zubeida Jaffer, Beauty of the Heart, 100.

  106. 106.

    Ibid.

  107. 107.

    We’re Stabbing Africa, Siyayibinza-I Afrika!!!, Umteteli waBantu, August 2, 1924, 8.

  108. 108.

    Zubeida Jaffer, Beauty of the Heart, 100.

  109. 109.

    Myrtle Trowbridge, Sibusiswe Makanya, unpublished biography, Sibusiswe Makanya Papers.

  110. 110.

    Violet Sibusisiwe Makanya, Bantu World, March 3, 1937, 10.

  111. 111.

    Umehani Khan, A Critical Study of the Life of Sibusisiwe Makanya and Her Work as Educator and Social Worker in the Umbumbulu District of Natal 1894–1971, 82, https://researchspace.ukzn.ac.za/xmlui/handle/10413/16962, date accessed 4 February 2021.

  112. 112.

    W. E. B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1899).

  113. 113.

    Letter from Sibusisiwe Makanya to Agricultural Missions Foundation, Inc., From a Record of the Bantu Youth League Work, July 1930–July 1935, 1, Historical Papers, Cullen Library, University of Witwatersrand, AD843/RJ/Pb13, Organisations, Bantu Youth League, Box 251.

  114. 114.

    Letter from Mrs. Mabel Carney to Dr. Charles T. Loram, 13 June 1930, Historical Papers, Cullen Library, University of Witwatersrand, AD843/RJ/Pb13, Organisations, Bantu Youth League, Box 251.

  115. 115.

    Letter from Sibusisiwe Makanya to Agricultural Missions Foundation, 1.

  116. 116.

    Ibid.

  117. 117.

    Umehani Khan, A Critical Study of the Life of Sibusisiwe Makanya, 97.

  118. 118.

    Lavinia Scott, General Letter, Adams, June 7, 1933, written by Lavinia Scott, 1907–1959, in American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions Papers, of Harvard University. Houghton Library (ABC 77.1 (Box 47; individual biography. Makanya, Violet S.—Makhanya, Mrs. Hamilton) (Cambridge, MA) (07 June 1933), 3 page(s) (hereafter Lavinia Scott letter).

  119. 119.

    Ibid.

  120. 120.

    Ibid.

  121. 121.

    Sibusisiwe Violet Makanya, https://live.fundza.mobi/home/library/non-fiction-books/against-the-wind-new-readers-publishers/sibusisiwe-violet-makhanya/ date accessed 3 January 2021.

  122. 122.

    Deborah Gaitskell, “Hot Meeting and Hard Kraals: African Biblewomen in Transvaal Methodism, 1924–60,” Journal of Religion in Africa, XXX, 3 (2000): 279, and Pam Brooks, Boycotts, Buses, and Passes: Black Women’s Resistance in the U.S. South and South Africa (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2008), 90.

  123. 123.

    Sibusisiwe Makanya, For Mr. Lovall’s Circular Minutes, The Bantu Youth League Papers, Natal, Historical Papers, Cullen Library, University of Witwatersrand, Organisations, Bantu Youth League, Box 251, AD843/RJ/Pb13.

  124. 124.

    Ibid.

  125. 125.

    Ibid.

  126. 126.

    Sibusisiwe Makanya, For Mr. Lovall’s Circular Minutes.

  127. 127.

    Amadodakazi aseAfrika: Ukuqalwa Kwawo-The Formation, Ilanga laseNatal, April 9, 1938, 13.

  128. 128.

    W. E. B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).

  129. 129.

    Glimpses of Native Life in South Africa, Radio Talk by Sibusisiwe Makanya, Durban, Natal, South Africa, Historical Papers, Cullen Library, University of Witwatersrand, Organisations, Bantu Youth League, Box 251, AD843/RJ/Pb13, 1.

  130. 130.

    Umehani Khan, A Critical Study of the Life of Sibusisiwe Makanya, 87.

  131. 131.

    Ibid.

  132. 132.

    Lavinia Scott Letter, 1.

  133. 133.

    Ibid., 2.

  134. 134.

    Umehani Khan, A Critical Study of the Life of Sibusisiwe Makanya, 84.

  135. 135.

    Ibid., 85.

  136. 136.

    Lavinia Scott Letter, 2.

  137. 137.

    University of South Africa (UNISA), Department of Native Affairs: Report of the Interdepartmental Commission on the Social, Health, and Economic Conditions of Urban Natives, 1942, Mondelinge Getuienis Voor Die Natarelle Kommissre/Minutes of Verbatim Evidence, V. 9, 6304.

  138. 138.

    Ibid., 6304–6305.

  139. 139.

    Ibid., 6305.

  140. 140.

    Umehani Khan, A Critical Study of the Life of Sibusisiwe Makanya, 85–86.

  141. 141.

    Ibid.

  142. 142.

    Sibusisiwe Violet Makanya, Glimpses of Native Life in South Africa, 1.

  143. 143.

    V. M. Sisi Magaqi, Florence Thandiswa Jabavu, Bantu Home Life, in Daymond, Dorothy Driver et al., Women Writing Africa, 189.

  144. 144.

    Sibusisiwe Violet Makanya, Glimpses of Native Life in South Africa, 1.

  145. 145.

    Ibid., 55.

  146. 146.

    Robert R. Edgar, Josie Mpama/Palmer, 102.

  147. 147.

    Sibusisiwe Violet Makanya, Glimpses of Native Life in South Africa, 55.

  148. 148.

    Dominic Fortescue, The Communist Party of South Africa, and the African Working Class in the 1940s, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 24, 3 (1991): 482.

  149. 149.

    Ibid., 482, 484, 490, 492.

  150. 150.

    Robert R. Edgar, Josie Mpama/Palmer, 21, 103, and Apollon Davidson, Irina Filatova et al. (eds.) South Africa and the Communist International: A Documentary History, Volume II Bolshevik Footsoldiers to Victims of Bolshevisation 1931–1939 (London: Frank Cass, 2003), 194–195.

  151. 151.

    Josie Mpama, Address of J. Mpama to Sixth National Conference, CPSA, September 1936 (Extract from Conference Minutes), in Apollon Davidson, Irina Filatova et al, South Africa and the Communist International: A Documentary History, Volume 11 Bolshevik Footsoldiers to Victims of Bolshevisation 1931–1939 (London: Frank Cass, 2003), 215–216.

  152. 152.

    Josie Palmer Papers, Institute for Commonwealth Studies, London, England.

  153. 153.

    Cherryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1982), 80.

  154. 154.

    Pamela Brooks, Boycotts, Buses, and Passes: Black Women’s Resistance in the United States and South Africa (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2008), 173.

  155. 155.

    “Educating Our Bantu Women”, Mochonono 22, November 1933 op. cited Robert R. Edgar, Josie Mpama/Palmer, 174.

  156. 156.

    Robert R. Edgar, Josie Mpama/Palmer, 41–51, 58, 64, 65, 67.

  157. 157.

    Ibid., 41.

  158. 158.

    Julia C. Wells, We Now Demand! The History of Women’s Resistance to Pass Laws in South Africa, (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 1993), 66.

  159. 159.

    Ibid., 67.

  160. 160.

    Julia C. Wells, Josie Mpama interview, Potchefstroom, 1977.

  161. 161.

    Julia C. Wells, We Now Demand, 66–72.

  162. 162.

    Robert R. Edgar, Josie Mpama/Palmer, 174.

  163. 163.

    Ibid., 175.

  164. 164.

    Ibid., 179.

  165. 165.

    See Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002).

  166. 166.

    Cecilia Lillian Tshabalala, “Miss C. L. Tshabalala’s Address” Bantu World, January 15, 1938, 11.

  167. 167.

    Ibid.

  168. 168.

    Ibid.

  169. 169.

    “History of Lynchings,” https://www.naacp.org/history-of-lynchings/ date accessed 2 May 2021.

  170. 170.

    See Ida B. Wells Barnett, The Red Record Tabulated Statistics and Alleged Causes of Lynching in the United States (Alpha Editions, 2018), Michelle Duster, Ida B. the Queen: The Extraordinary Life and Legacy of Ida B. Wells (Atria/One Signal Publishers, 2021), Alfred M. Duster et al., Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells, Second Edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2020), and Paula J. Giddings, Ida: A Sword Among Lions: Ida B. Wells and the Campaign Against Lynching (New York: Amistad, 2009).

  171. 171.

    SS Mendi, https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/ss-mendi, date accessed 4 May 2021.

  172. 172.

    Bible, Psalms 68:31.

  173. 173.

    See Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002).

  174. 174.

    Other countries that participated were Sweden, Norway, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Portugal among other nations.

  175. 175.

    Cecilia Lillian Tshabalala, “Miss C. L. Tshabalala’s Address.”

  176. 176.

    Baroness Lola Young, The hidden history of the sinking of the SS Mendi, https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/hidden-history-sinking-ss-mend, date accessed 4 May 2021.

  177. 177.

    See Toyin Falola and Matthew M. Heaton (ed.) History of Nigeria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

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  1. Department of History, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA

    Dawne Y. Curry

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Curry, D.Y. (2022). Activist Intellectuals and the Quest to Save the Nation. In: Social Justice at Apartheid’s Dawn. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85404-1_4

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