Abstract
This chapter is set in the context of the lack and scarcity of basic urban drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services. It raises the question of the involvement of multiple actors, and of formal and informal arrangements for service delivery. The Democratic Republic of Congo government’s VEA programme aims to improve access to these three services through collaboration between public authorities and citizens. To investigate the long-term dimension of these arrangements, this chapter focuses on the motivations of community actors to co-produce WASH services on the periphery of Kinshasa. The authors exploit the prism of the co-production of public services to characterise these arrangements and to understand co-production incentives. The chapter concludes that citizens’ contributions are diverse, mobilising different categories, and that a mix of these motivations can contribute to the sustainability of these arrangements. Eventually, knowing the motivations of citizens in co-producing allows policymakers to orient public policies to keep their motivations active.
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Notes
- 1.
Régideso is the monopoly provider of drinking water services in urban areas. It falls under the supervision of the Ministry of Energy for technical aspects and the Ministry of Portfolio for administrative aspects (CNAEA 2011).
- 2.
The Programme National d’Assainissement or PNA (National Sanitation Programme) is a governmental structure of the Ministry of the Environment in charge of coordinating and planning vector control activities.
- 3.
Report of the Plenary Session of March 25, 2015 of the National Assembly on the oral question with debate addressed by the Honourable Mbindule Mitono, National Deputy to the Managing Director General of Regideso on “water scarcity and insalubrity”.
- 4.
The health zone is a decentralised, operational entity for the planning and implementation strategy for primary health care in DRC (Mills et al. 1991; Coldefy and Lucas-Gabrieli 2008). This geographical entity is strictly delimited (maximum diameter 15 km) and located within the limits of a territory or an administrative commune. It has a population of at least 100,000 inhabitants, generally composed of socioculturally homogenous communities, with health services at two interdependent levels (health centres at the first level and a general reference hospital [HGR] at the second level), under the supervision of a Health Zone Framework Team (Ministère de la Sante RDC 2006).
- 5.
The key actors at central (national) level are the Ministry of Public Health through its ninth division (D9), which is the national focal point for the VEA programme, MEPSP-INC, the National Committee for Water Supply, Hygiene and Sanitation, SNHR and DAS.
- 6.
The main actors at the intermediate (provincial) level are the Provincial Health Division, via the Ninth Bureau (B9) and the Fifth Bureau (B5), the Provincial Water Supply, Hygiene and Sanitation Committee, the SNHR and the APA (governor).
- 7.
The key players at the peripheral level (health zone) are the Zone Chief Medical Officer, the one who organises planning, coordination, monitoring and evaluation. The Community Animator and the Water and Sanitation Supervisor, the local implementing NGOs for the boreholes and for the installation of hand pumps and the APA (mayor). Other voluntary local partners also support the health zone, such as the Community Relay (Reco), who is a voluntary civil servant from the Ministry of Health (living in the health area or neighbourhood) and who comes to the aid of its citizens on problems relating to community health. The Reco is responsible for raising awareness of good hygiene practices. The Development Committee is a structure that brings together Recos and other community leaders who are concerned about the development of their entity. Thus, they are responsible for promoting adequate sanitation.
- 8.
The BCZ is a technical service provider for the Ministry of Health. It is represented by a team for the health zone that is composed of a zone head doctor, a community facilitator and a registered nurse. The last two are managers of the state WASH services at the local level.
- 9.
Kimbanseke is a large commune in Kinshasa. It covers an area of about 240 km2 or (24,000 ha). Created by a ministerial decree of March 30, 1968, it is an urban–rural commune on the periphery of Kinshasa, with very little basic infrastructure. It officially comprises 46 neighbourhoods and its population is estimated at around 1,066,510 inhabitants, or 44.44 inhabitants/ha (Commune de Kimbanseke 2017).
- 10.
Villages/streets “certified as being healthy” are arteries of agglomerations. When they are in an urban context, they are streets. In a peri-urban or rural context, they are villages. They are certified and sanitised when they meet the criteria of cleanliness and organisation for WASH services, according to the requirements of the VEA programme (Atlas 2014).
- 11.
Water attendant is the name given to a manager of fountain posts.
- 12.
The Kimpanzu footbridge is both the structural axis of and the gateway to the Biyela Health Area. Until July 2018, Biyela was linked with its neighbourhood by a tree trunk across the Nsanga River. However, during the November 2018 election campaign, a deputy candidate built a concrete bridge and was elected to the national legislature.
- 13.
The APA is a politico-administrative authority (the mayor and head of the district), which commits itself and obtains commitment from all parties to define needs and priorities and to undertake investment planning to ensure that WASH services are accessible to all. Despite this, its role is not yet clear at the local level, and the enforcement measures for the water law (the provincial decrees that will define some of the details of the law) have not yet been finalised.
- 14.
The post-certification phase is a monitoring and evaluation phase conducted by the BCZ, APA, SNHR and DAS to maintain or catch up with the status of a clean or sanitised village.
- 15.
The insalubrity of the immediate environment of these households (rubbish dumps, stagnant water, contaminated soil, etc.) remains a cause for concern. Faced with these factors, which are favourable to the development of vectors of water-borne diseases, end users are developing alternative strategies for the conservation of drinking water. The use of plastic drums with a cap instead of a simple container without a lid appears to these users as an effective means of protecting the water supply to prevent the oral transmission of microbes. Regarding sanitation, 90% of the households said they throw the excreta of children under five into the toilet instead of leaving it lying around in the yard. Some 54% of the households surveyed use the hole in the plot as a means of evacuating wastewater to prevent any form of pathology (diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, etc.) through the proliferation of flies and soil contamination. The corollary of this is an increase in mortality and morbidity, particularly among children.
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Ilito-Boozi, JP., Moretto, L. (2021). Motivations to Co-produce Water, Hygiene and Sanitation Services in the Peri-urban Area of Kinshasa. In: Faldi, G., Fisher, A., Moretto, L. (eds) African Cities Through Local Eyes. The Urban Book Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84906-1_13
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