Abstract
Disgust, as a food-related emotion, or distaste (thought to be a precursor to disgust) has often been studied within an associative learning framework. However, it is only within the last few decades that disgust, as a basic emotion, has been considered from a conditioning perspective. This chapter aims to explore the theoretical perspectives that consider the development and acquisition of disgust as resulting from direct and indirect associative learning mechanisms. It will also briefly explore the contribution of indirect disgust-related learning experiences to the promotion of fear.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anderson, A. K., Christoff, K., Panitz, D., De Rosa, E., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2003). Neural correlates of the automatic processing of threat facial signals. Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 5627-5633. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-13-05627.2003
Armstrong, T., McClenahan, L., Kittle, J., & Olatunji, B. O. (2014). Don’t look now! Oculomotor avoidance as a conditioned disgust response. Emotion, 14, 95-104. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034558
Askew, C., Cakir, K., Poldsam, L., & Reynolds, G. (2014). The effect of disgust and fear modeling on children’s disgust and fear for animals. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 123, 566-577. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037228
Askew, C., Dunne, G., Özdil, Z., Reynolds, G., & Field, A. P. (2013). Stimulus fear-relevance and the vicarious learning pathway to fear. Emotion, 13, 915–925. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032714
Askew, C., & Field, A. P. (2007). Vicarious learning and the development of fears during childhood. Behaviour, Research and Therapy, 45, 2616–2627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.06.008
Askew, C., & Field, A. P. (2008). The vicarious learning pathway to fear 40 years on. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 1249-1265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2008.05.003
Askew, C., Hagel, A., & Morgan, J. (2015). Vicarious learning of children’s social anxiety-related fear beliefs and emotional Stroop bias. Emotion, 15, 501-510. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000083
Askew, C., Kessock-Philip, H., & Field, A. P. (2008). Interactions between the indirect pathways to fear in children: what happens when verbal threat information and vicarious learning combine? Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36, 491-505. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465808004402
Askew, C., Reynolds, G., Fielding-Smith, S., & Field, A. P. (2016). Inhibition of vicariously learned fear in children using positive modeling and prior exposure. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125, 279-291. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000131
Baeyens, F., Crombez, G., Van den Bergh, O., & Eelen, P. (1988). Once in contact always in contact: evaluative conditioning is resistant to extinction. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 10, 179-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6402(88)90014-8
Baeyens, F., & De Houwer, J. (1995). Evaluative conditioning is a qualitatively distinct form of classical conditioning: A reply to Davey (1994). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 825-831. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(95)00021-O
Baeyens, F., Eelen, P., Crombez, G., & Van den Bergh, O. (1992). Human evaluative conditioning: Acquisition trials, presentation schedule, evaluative style, and contingency awareness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30, 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(92)90136-5
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of Behavior Modification. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Berger, S. M. (1962). Conditioning through vicarious instigation. Psychological Review, 69, 450-466. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046466
Bögels, S., & Phares, V. (2008). Fathers’ role in the etiology, prevention and treatment of childhood anxiety: A review and new model. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 539-558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.07.011
Borg, C., Bosman, R. C., Engelhard, I., Olatunji, B. O., & de Jong, P. J. (2016). Is disgust sensitive to classical conditioning as indexed by facial electromyography and behavioural responses? Cognition and Emotion, 30, 669-686. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1022512
Bosman, R. C., Borg, C., & de Jong, P. J. (2016). Optimising extinction of conditioned disgust. Plos One, 11, e0148626. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148626
Chapman, H. A., Johannes, K., Poppenk, J. L., Moscovitch, M., & Anderson, A. K. (2013). Evidence for the differential salience of disgust and fear in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 142, 1100–1112. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030503
Cisler, J. M., Olatunji, B. O., Lohr, J. M., & Williams, N. L. (2009). Attentional bias differences between fear and disgust: Implications for the role of disgust in disgust-related anxiety disorders. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 675-687. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802051599
Curtis, V., de Barra, M., & Aunger, R. (2011). Disgust as an adaptive system for disease avoidance behaviour. Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society, 366, 389-401. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0117
Davey, G. C. L. (1992). Characteristics of individuals with fear of spiders. Anxiety Research, 4, 299-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/08917779208248798
Davey, G. C. L. (1994). Defining the Important Theoretical Questions to Ask About Evaluative Conditioning - a reply to Martin and Levey (1994). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32(3), 307-310. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90126-0
Davey, G. C. L. (2011). Disgust: The disease-avoidance emotion and its dysfunctions. Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society, 366, 3453-3465. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0039
Davey, G. C. L., Bickerstaffe, S., & MacDonald, B. A. (2006). Experienced disgust causes a negative interpretation bias: A causal role for disgust in anxious psychopathology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1375-1384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.10.006
Davey, G. C. L., Forster, L., & Mayhew, G. (1993). Familal resemblances in disgust sensitivity and animal phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 41-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(93)90041-R
Davey, G. C. L., & Marzillier, S. (2009). Disgust and animal phobias. In B. O. Olatunji & D. McKay (Eds.), Disgust and its disorders: Theory, assessment, and treatment implications (pp. 169–190). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11856-008
de Houwer, J. (2007). A conceptual and theoretical analysis of evaluative conditioning. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 10, 230-241. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1138741600006491
de Houwer, J., Thomas, S., & Baeyens, F. (2001). Association learning of likes and dislikes: A review of 25 years of research on human evaluative conditioning. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 853. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.853
de Jong, P. (2013). Learning mechanisms in the acquisition of disgust. In D. Hermans, B. Rimé, & B. Mesquita, (Eds.). Changing Emotions (pp. 74-80). Psychology Press.
de Jong, P. J., Vorage, I., & van den Hout, M. A. (2000). Counterconditioning in the treatment of spider phobia: effects on disgust, fear and valence. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 1055-1069. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00135-7
Dubi, K., Rapee, R. M., Emerton, J., & Schniering, C. (2008). Maternal modeling and the acquisition of fear and avoidance in toddlers: Influence of stimulus preparedness and child temperament. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 499–512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9195-3
Dunne, G., & Askew, C. (2013). Vicarious learning and un-learning of fear in children via mother and stranger models. Emotion, 13, 974-980. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032994
Dunne, G., & Askew, C. (2018). Vicarious Learning and Reduction of Fear in Children via Adult and Child Models. Emotion, 18, 528-534. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000341
Dunne, G., Reynolds, G, & Askew, C. (2017). Stimulus fear-relevance and the speed, magnitude, and robustness of vicariously learned fear. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 95, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.002
Engelhard, I. M., Leer, A., Lange, E., & Olatunji, B. O. (2014). Shaking that icky feeling: Effects of extinction and counterconditioning on disgust-related evaluative learning. Behavior Therapy, 45, 708-719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2014.04.003
Engelhard, I. M., van den Hout, M. A., Arntz, A., & McNally, R. J. (2002). A longitudinal study of ‘intrusion-based reasoning’ and PTSD after a train disaster. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 1415-1424. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(02)00018-9
Field, A. P. (2006a). The behavioural inhibition system and the verbal information pathway to children’s fears. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 742-752. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843x.115.4.742
Field, A. P. (2006b). Watch out for the beast: Fear information and attentional bias in children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 431-439. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3503_8
Field, A. P., Argyris, N. G., & Knowles, K. A. (2001). Who’s afraid of the big bad wolf: a prospective paradigm to test Rachman’s indirect pathways in children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1259-1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(00)00080-2
Field, A. P., Lascelles, K. R. R., Lester, K. J., Askew, C., & Davey, G. C. L. (2008a). Evaluative conditioning: Missing, presumed dead. Netherlands Journal of Psychology, 64, 46-64. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03076407
Field, A. P., & Lawson, J. (2003). Fear information and the development of fears during childhood: Effects on implicit fear responses and behavioural avoidance. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1277–1293. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00034-2
Field, A. P., Lawson, J., & Banerjee, R. (2008b). The verbal threat information pathway to fear in children: The longitudinal effects on fear cognitions and the immediate effects on avoidance behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 214–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843x.117.1.214
Field, A. P., & Schorah, H. (2007). The verbal information pathway to fear and heart rate changes in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1088–1093. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01772.x
Garb, J. L., & Stunkard, A. J. (1974). Taste aversions in man. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 1204-1207. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.131.11.1204
Garcia, J., Ervin, R. R., & Koelling, R. A. (1966). Learning with prolonged delay of reinforcement. Psychonomic Science, 5, 121-122. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03328311
Garcia, J., Hankins, W. G., & Rusiniak, K. W. (1974). Behavioral regulation of the milieu interne in man and rat. Food preferences set by delayed visceral effects facilitate memory research and predator control. Science 185, 824–831. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4154.824
Garcia, J., Kimeldorf, D. J., & Koelling, R. A. (1955). Conditioned aversion to saccharin resulting from exposure to gamma radiation. Science, 122, 157-158.
Garcia, J., & Koelling, R. A. (1966). Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 4(3), 123-124. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03342209
Gerull, F. C., & Rapee, R. M. (2002). Mother knows best: Effects of maternal modeling on the acquisition of fear and avoidance behaviour in toddlers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 279–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00013-4
Golkar, A., Selbing, I., Flygare, O., Öhman, A., & Olsson, A. (2013). Other People as Means to a Safe End: Vicarious Extinction Blocks the Return of Learned Fear. Psychological Science, 24, 2182-2190. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613489890
Gray, J. A. (1987). The Psychology of Fear and Stress. CUP Archive.
Hermans, D., Crombez, G., Vansteenwegen, D., Baeyens, F., & Eelen, P. (2002a). Expectancy-learning and evaluative learning in human classical conditioning: Differential effects of extinction. In S. P. Shohov (Ed.), Advances in psychology research, Vol. 12, pp. 17-40). Nova Science Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00006-7
Hermans, D., Vansteenwegen, D., Crombez, G., Baeyens, F., & Eelen, P. (2002b). Expectancy-learning and evaluative learning in human classical conditioning: affective priming as an indirect and unobstrusive measure of conditioned stimulus valence. Behaviour, Research and Therapy, 40, 217-234. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00006-7
Hertenstein, M. J., & Campos, J. J. (2004). The retention effects of an adult’s emotional displays on infant behavior. Child Development, 75, 595-613. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00695.x
Hofmann, W., de Houwer, J., Perugini, M., Baeyens, F., & Crombez, G. (2010). Evaluative conditioning in humans: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 39-421. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018916
Izard, C. E. (1994). Innate and universal facial expressions: Evidence from developmental and cross-cultural research. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 288-299. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.288
Kim, E. H., Ebesutani, C., Young, J., & Olatunji, B. O. (2013). Factor structure of the Disgust Scale–Revised in an adolescent sample. Assessment, 20, 620–631. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191111434200
Klucken, T., Schweckendiek, J., Koppe, G., Merz, C. J., Kagerer, S., Walter, B., Sammer, G., Vaitl, D., & Stark, R. (2012). Neural correlates of disgust- and fear-conditioned responses. Neuroscience, 201, 209-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.11.007
Knowles, K. A., Cox, R. C., Armstrong, T., & Olatunji, B. O. (2019). Cognitive mechanisms of disgust in the development and maintenance of psychopathology: A qualitative review and synthesis. Clinical Psychology Review, 69, 30-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.06.002
Koster, E. H. W., Crombez, G., Van Damme, S., Verschuere, B., & De Houwer, J. (2004). Does imminent threat capture and hold attention? Emotion, 4, 312-317. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.4.3.312
Krusemark, E. A., & Li, W. (2011). Do all threats work the same way? Divergent effects of fear and disgust on sensory perception and attention. The Journal of Neuroscience 31, 3429–3434. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4394-10.2011
Logue, A. W., Ophir, I., & Strauss, K. E. (1981). The acquisition of taste aversions in humans. Behaviour, Research and Therapy, 19, 319-333. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(81)90053-x
Marzillier, S. J., & Davey, G. C. L. (2005). Anxiety and disgust: Evidence for a unidirectional relationship. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 729–750.https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/02699930441000436
Mason, E. C., & Richardson, R. (2010). Looking beyond fear: The extinction of other emotions implicated in anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 63-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.08.007
Matchett, G., & Davey, G. C. L. (1991). A test of a disease-avoidance model of animal phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29, 91-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(09)80011-9
McNally, R. J. (2002). Disgust has arrived. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 16, 561-566. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0887-6185(02)00174-3
Merckelbach, H., De Jong, P. J., Muris, P., & Van den Hout, M. A. (1996). The etiology of specific phobias: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 16, 337-361. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(96)00014-1
Midkiff, E. E., & Bernstein, I. L. (1985). Targets of learned food aversions in humans. Physiology and Behavior, 34, 839-841. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(85)90387-7
Mineka, S., & Cook, M. (1993). Mechanisms involved in the observational conditioning of fear. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 23-38. https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-3445.122.1.23
Moses, L. J., Baldwin, D. A., Rosicky, J. G., & Tidball, G. (2001). Evidence for referential understanding in the emotions domain at twelve and eighteen months. Child Development, 72, 718-735. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00311
Muris, P., Bodden, D., Merckelbach, H., Ollendick, T. H., & King, N. J. (2003). Fear of the beast: A prospective study on the effects of negative information on childhood fear. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 195-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00137-1
Muris, P., Huijding, J., Mayer, B., & de Vries, H. (2012). Does “yuck” mean “eek”? Fear responses in children after a disgust manipulation. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43, 765-769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.10.002
Muris, P., Huijding, J., Mayer, B., Leemreis, W., Passchier, S., & Bouwmeester, S. (2009). The effects of verbal disgust- and threat-related information about novel animals on disgust and fear beliefs and avoidance in children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38, 551–563. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410902976379
Muris, P., Mayer, B., Borth, M., & Vos, M. (2013). Nonverbal and verbal transmission of disgust from mothers to offspring: Effects on children’s evaluation of a novel animal. Behavior Therapy, 44, 293-301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2012.10.002
Muris, P., Mayer, B., Huijding, J., & Konings, T. (2008a). A dirty animal is a scary animal! Effects of disgust-related information on fear beliefs in children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 137-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.09.005
Muris, P., & Merckelbach, H. (2001). The etiology of childhood specific phobias: A multifactorial model. In M. W. Vasey, M. R. Dadds (Eds.), The Developmental Psychopathology of Anxiety (pp. 355-385). Oxford University Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1093/med:psych/9780195123630.003.0016
Muris, P., van der Heiden, S., & Rassin, E. (2008b). Disgust sensitivity and psychopathological symptoms in non-clinical children. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 39, 133-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.02.001
Oaten, M., Stevenson, R., & Case, T. (2009). Disgust as a disease-avoidance mechanism. Psychology Bulletin, 135, 303-321. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014823
Olatunji, B. O., Forsyth, J. P., & Cherian, A. (2007). Evaluative differential conditioning of disgust: a sticky form of relational learning that is resistant to extinction. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 820–834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.11.004
Olatunji, B. O., Lohr, J. M., Smits, J. A. J., Sawchuk, C. N., & Patten, K. (2009). Evaluative conditioning of fear and disgust in blood-injection-injury phobia: Specificity and impact of individual differences in disgust sensitivity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 153-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.06.002
Olatunji, B. O., & Sawchuk, C. N. (2005). Disgust: characteristic features, social manifestations, and clinical implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 932-962. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.7.932
Olatunji, B. O., Tomarken, A., & Puncochar, B. D. (2013). Disgust propensity potentiates evaluative learning of aversion. Emotion, 13, 881-890. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032743
Olsson, A., McMahon, K., Papenberg, G., Zaki, J., Bolger, N., & Ochsner, K. N. (2016). Vicarious fear learning depends on empathic appraisals and trait empathy. Psychological Science, 27, 25-33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615604124
Olsson, A., & Phelps, E. A. (2004). Learned fear of “unseen” faces after Pavlovian, observational, and instructed fear. Psychological Science, 15, 822−828. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00762.x
Page, A. P. (1994). Blood-injury phobia. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 443-461. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(94)90036-1
Pinker, S. (2002). The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. Penguin Putnam.
Rachman, S. (1977). The conditioning theory of fear acquisition: A critical examination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15, 375–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(77)90041-9
Revusky, S. H., & Bedarf, E. W. (1967). Association of illness with prior ingestion of novel foods. Science, 155, 219-220. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.155.3759.219
Reynolds, G., & Askew, C. (2019). Effects of Vicarious Disgust Learning on the Development of Fear, Disgust and Attentional Biases in Children. Emotion, 19(7), 1268-1283. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000511
Reynolds, G., Field, A. P., & Askew, C. (2014). The effect of vicarious fear learning on children’s heart rate responses and attentional bias for novel animals. Emotion, 14, 995–1006. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037225
Reynolds, G., Field, A. P., & Askew, C. (2015). Preventing the development of observationally learnt fears in children by devaluing the model’s negative response. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 1355–1367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0004-0
Reynolds, G., Field, A. P., & Askew, C. (2016). Reductions in Children’s Vicariously Learnt Avoidance and Heart Rate Responses Using Positive Modeling. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 23, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1138410
Reynolds, G., Field, A. P., & Askew, C. (2017a). Learning to fear a second-order stimulus following vicarious learning. Cognition and Emotion, 31, 572-579. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1116978
Reynolds, G., Wasely, D., Dunne, G., & Askew, C. (2017b). A comparison of positive vicarious learning and verbal information for reducing vicariously learned fear. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2017.1389695
Rottman, J. (2014). Evolution, development, and the emergence of disgust. Evolutionary Psychology, 12, 417–433. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491401200209
Rottman J., DeJesus J., & Greenebaum H. (2019). Developing Disgust: Theory, Measurement, and Application. In V. LoBue, K. Pérez-Edgar, K. Buss (Eds.), Handbook of Emotional Development (pp. 283-209). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17332-6_12
Rozin, P., & Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review, 94, 23-41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.94.1.23
Rozin, P., Fallon, A., & Mandell, R. (1984). Family resemblance in attitudes to foods. Developmental Psychology, 20, 309–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.20.2.309
Rozin, P., Haidt, J., & McCauley, C. R. (2008). Disgust. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 757-776). Guilford Press.
Rozin, P., & Millman, L. (1987). Family environment, not heredity, accounts for family resemblances in food preferences and attitudes: A twin study. Appetite, 8, 125-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0195-6663(87)80005-3
Rozin, P., Millman, L., & Nemeroff, C. (1986). Operation of the laws of sympathetic magic in disgust and other domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 703-712. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.4.703
Schienle, A., Stark, R., & Vaitl, D. (2001). Evaluative conditioning: A possible explanation for the acquisition of disgust responses? Learning and Motivation, 32, 65-83. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1006/lmot.2000.1067
Sherlock, J. M., Zietsch, B. P., Tybur, J. M., & Jern, P. (2016). The quantitative genetics of disgust sensitivity. Emotion, 16, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000101
Stevenson, R. J., Oaten, M. J., Case, T. I., Repacholi, B. M., & Wagland, P. (2010). Children’s response to adult disgust elicitors: development and acquisition. Developmental Psychology, 46, 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016692
Tolin, D. F., Lohr, J. M., Sawchuk, C. N., & Lee, T. C. (1997). Disgust and disgust sensitivity in blood-injection-injury and spider phobia. Behaviour, Research and Therapy, 35, 949-953. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(97)00048-x
Tybur, J. M., Çınar, Ç., Karinen, A. K., & Perone, P. (2018). Why do people vary in disgust? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 373:20170204. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0204
Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., & DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120, 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030778
van Overveld, W. J. M., de Jong, P. J., Peters, M. L., Cavanagh, K., & Davey, G. C. L. (2006). Disgust propensity and disgust sensitivity: Separate constructs that are differentially related to specific fears. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 1241-1252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.04.021
Webb, K., & Davey, G. C. L. (1992). Disgust sensitivity and fear of animals: effect of exposure to violent or revulsive material. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 5, 329-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615809208248369
Widen, S. C., & Olatunji, B.O. (2016). A developmental perspective on disgust: implications for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports, 3, 204–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40473-016-0087-0
Woody, S. R., & Teachman, B. A. (2000). Intersection of disgust and fear: Normative and pathological views. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 7, 291-311. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.7.3.291
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Reynolds, G., Askew, C. (2021). Direct and Indirect Learning Pathways to Disgust. In: Powell, P.A., Consedine, N.S. (eds) The Handbook of Disgust Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84486-8_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84486-8_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-84485-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-84486-8
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)