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Memories and Memorials of Literature and Art at the Turn of the First Millennium

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Memorialising Premodern Monarchs

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Abstract

The Ottonian women—Empress Adelheid, Queen Mathilda, and Abbess Mathilda of Quedlinburg—had parts to play in the formation of memory at the turn of the first millennium. They created memorials, images, monasteries, and a saint or two in Germany and Italy for the edification of future generations. For the hundred years after Adelheid’s death a coterie of admirers sought and succeeded in creating her as a saint. The influences of the later Salian empresses—Kunigunde and Gisela—and of Countess Matilda of Tuscany are also explored.

Using manuscripts from the Ottonian and Salian dynasties, the author examines selected artworks of elite women in order to reinterpret their currently accepted dates of creation and whom they portray. Consequently the images are subject to new interpretations.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    “Quin etiam computarium, in quo erant nomina procerum scripta defunctorum, in manum ipsius dans animam illi commendavit Heinrici nec non et suam sed et omnium, quorum ipsa memoriam recolebat, fidelium”; Bernd Schütte, ed., Vita Mathildis reginae antiquior, MGH SSrG [66]:107–42 (Hanover: Hahn, 1994) [hereafter VMA], ch. 13, 138, trans. in Sean Gilsdorf, Queenship and Sanctity The Lives of Mathilda and the Epitaph of Adelheid (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 2004), 71–87, at 86. A later biography of Queen Mathilda includes almost identical words: Bernd Schütte, ed., Vita Mathildis reginae posterior, MGH SSrG [66]:143–202 (Hanover: Hahn, 1994) [hereafter VMP], ch. 26, 199, trans. in Gilsdorf, Queenship, 88–127, at 125. Gilsdorf examined authorship at 19–21 and concluded that the author of the VMA was female and that of the VMP unknown; the latter confirmed by Patrick Corbet, Les saints ottoniens: sainteté dynastique, sainteté royale et sainteté féminine autour de l’an Mil (Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1986), 120. In communities of well-educated canonesses with close links to the royal family, female authorship is unsurprising.

  2. 2.

    Gerd Althoff, Family, Friends and Followers (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Sean Gilsdorf, The Favor of Friends (Leiden: Brill, 2014).

  3. 3.

    Gilsdorf, Queenship, 27–29; Heinrich Fichtenau, Living in the Tenth Century, trans. Patrick Geary (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 148–52; Penelope Nash, “Maintaining Elite Households in Germany and Italy, 900–1115,” in Royal and Elite Households in Later Medieval and Early Modern Europe, ed. Theresa Earenfight (Leiden: Brill, 2018), 42–53. For memoria, as its meaning shifted from one of the five parts of Rhetoric in earlier Latin sources to one of the three parts of the Virtue of Prudence, see Frances A. Yates, Selected Works of Frances Yates, Volume III: The Art of Memory (London and New York: Routledge, 1966; ARK Edition, 1984, repr. 2001), 53–54. Patrick J. Geary, Phantoms of Remembrance (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 48–80.

  4. 4.

    Marc Bloch, The Historian’s Craft, trans. Peter Putnam (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1954; repr. with an introduction by Peter Burke, 1992), 43.

  5. 5.

    Robert Eric Frykenberg, Delhi through the Ages: Essays in Urban History, Culture, and Society (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1986), xi.

  6. 6.

    Janet L. Nelson, King and Emperor (London: Allen Lane, 2019), 2, 384–85; Josef Fleckenstein, Early Medieval Germany, trans. Bernard S. Smith (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1978), 146.

  7. 7.

    Nelson, King, 3. Mary J. Carruthers, The Book of Memory, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

  8. 8.

    Eliza Garrison, “Ottonian Art and Its Afterlife: Revisiting Percy Ernst Schramm’s Portraiture Idea,” Oxford Art Journal 32, no. 2 (2009): 210–212, 215, 222.

  9. 9.

    Rulers of the Ottonian dynasty: Henry I (d. 936), Otto I (d. 973), Otto II (d. 983), Otto III (d. 1002), Henry II (d. 1024).

  10. 10.

    Eliza Garrison, Ottonian Imperial Art and Portraiture (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), 166.

  11. 11.

    Amy Remensnyder, “Topographies of Memory,” in Medieval Concepts of the Past, eds. Gerd Althoff, Johannes Fried, and Patrick J. Geary (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; Washington, DC: German Historical Institute, 2002), 198–199, 207–214.

  12. 12.

    Chris Wickham, “Lawyers’ Time,” in Land and Power, ed. Chris Wickham (London: British School at Rome, 1994), 276, and 282–83. For the transformation in the eleventh century: Lynette Olson, The Early Middle Ages (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 157–197.

  13. 13.

    Donizone, Vita di Matilde di Canossa (Vita Mathildis), ed. Paolo Golinelli (Milan: Jaca, 2008). Paolo Golinelli, L’ancella di san Pietro, Biblioteca di cultura medievale (Milan: Jaca Book, 2015); I. S. Robinson, Henry IV of Germany, 1056–1106 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Penelope Nash, The Spirituality of Countess Matilda of Tuscany, Quaderni I (Bologna: Pàtron, 2021).

  14. 14.

    Otto II in Majesty. Registrum Gregorii, Reichenau, c. 983, Musée Condé, MS 14, single sheet; Otto III in Majesty with Four Worshipping Tribes. Gospel Book of Otto III, Reichenau, c. 998, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm. 4453, fols 23v and 24r; Otto III Enthroned. Liuthar Gospels, c. 990, Cathedral Treasury Aachen, fol. 16r; Henry II Enthroned under a Baldachin. Sacramentary of Henry II (“Regensburg Sacramentary”), between 1002 and 1012, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm. 4456, fol. 11v. Space does not allow a detailed comparison with male-ruler portraits here. For a few of the many discussions about male-ruler portraits, see Elisabeth Klemm, “Anfänge und Blütezeit der ottonischen Buchmalerei,” in Pracht auf Pergament, eds. Christiane Lange and Claudia Fabian (Munich: Hirmer, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, 2012), 90–97; Percy Ernst Schramm, Die deutschen Kaiser und Könige in Bildern ihrer Zeit 751–1190, ed. Florentine Mütherich (Munich, 1983 (1928)); Percy Ernst Schramm and Florentine Mütherich, Denkmale der deutschen Könige und Kaiser. Vol 1. Ein Beitrag zur Herrschergeschichte von Karl dem Grossen bis Friedrich II. 768–1250, 2nd ed. (Munich: Prestel, 1981). For an overview of the location of manuscripts containing Ottonian book art (vol. 1) and images (vol. 2), see Hartmut Hoffmann, Buchkunst und Königtum im ottonischen und frühsalischen Reich, 2 vols., MGH Schriften 30 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 1986), especially 1:103–516.

  15. 15.

    “Conregnante sua Mathilda coniuge clara” (about Queen Mathilda) and “sui consors dignissima regni” (about Adelheid, not yet Empress) in Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim, Gesta Ottonis, ed. Walter Berschin, Hrotsvit Opera omnia, 3.271–305 (Munich: K. G. Sur, 2001), 3.276, line 22 and 3.298, line 665; Franz-Reiner Erkens, “Die Frau als Herrscherin in ottonisch-frühsalischer Zeit,” in Kaiserin Theophanu, eds. Anton von Euw and Peter Schreiner (Cologne: Schnütgen-Museum, 1991), 2:245–60; Patricia Skinner, Women in Medieval Italian Society, 500–1200 (Harlow: Pearson Education, 2001), 99–108.

  16. 16.

    Rosamond McKitterick, “Ottonian Intellectual Culture in the Tenth Century and the Role of Theophanu,” Early Medieval Europe 2.1 (1993): 53–74; Rosamond McKitterick, “Women in the Ottonian Church,” in Rosamond McKitterick, The Frankish Kings and Culture in the Early Middle Ages (Aldershot: Variorum, 1995), XI. 79–100.

  17. 17.

    Adelheid (d. 999, second wife of Otto I), Theophanu (d. 991, wife of Otto II), and Kunigunde (d. 1033, wife of Henry II).

  18. 18.

    Hereafter generally abbreviated to Image 1 (W 312).

  19. 19.

    David Hugh Farmer, Oxford Dictionary of Saints, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), s.v. “Gereon.”

  20. 20.

    Joshua O’Driscoll, “Image and Inscription in the Painterly Manuscripts from Ottonian Cologne” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2015), 18–21. See also Anton von Euw, Vor dem Jahr 1000. Abendländische Buchkunst zur Zeit der Kaiserin Theophanu (Cologne: Schnütgen Museum, 1991), 30–34; Peter Bloch and Hermann Schnitzler, Die ottonische Kölner Malerschule, 2 vols. (Düsseldorf: Schwann, 1967–1970), 1:25–31.

  21. 21.

    Florentine Mütherich, “Die Buchmalerei in den Klosterschulen des frühen Mittelalters,” in Monastische Reformen im 9. und 10. Jahrhundert: Vorträge und Forschungen, eds. Raymund Kottje and Helmut Maurer (Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1989), 20.

  22. 22.

    Adelheid, Theophanu, Otto III and Lamb of God. Initial Page. Matthew Evangelistary, Gospel of Saint-Géréon, between 996 and 999 or before 1043, Historisches Archiv der Stadt, Cologne, cod. W 312, fol. 22r. Rainer Kahsnitz, “Ein Bildnis der Theophanu? Zur Tradition der Münz- und Medaillon-Bildnisse in der karolingischen und ottonischen Buchmalerei,” in Kaiserin Theophanu, eds. Anton von Euw and Peter Schreiner, 2:101–105, 2:130–134; Anton von Euw, “Die ottonische Kölner Malerschule. Synthese der künstlerischen Strömungen aus West und Ost,” in Kaiserin Theophanu, eds. Anton von Euw and Peter Schreiner, esp. 1:264–66.

  23. 23.

    Henry Mayr-Harting, Ottonian Book Illumination, 2 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1991), 2:144–145, plates XIV and XV.

  24. 24.

    Penelope Nash, “Insular Influences on Carolingian and Ottonian Literature and Art,” in Prophecy, Fate and Memory in the Early and Medieval Celtic World, eds. Jonathan M. Wooding and Lynette Olson (Sydney: Sydney University Press, 2020), 118–119; Fabrizio Crivello, “L’Irlanda e l’arte carolingia,” in L’Irlanda e gli Irlandesi nell’alto medioevo (Spoleto: Presso la Sede della Fondazione, 2010), 757–777. Crivello considers that the initials are typical Ottonian: Crivello, pers. comm. to author, 15 May 2020.

  25. 25.

    Penelope Nash, “Demonstrations of Imperium,” Basileia. Byzantina Australiensia 17 (2011): 159–172.

  26. 26.

    Florentine Mütherich and Joachim E. Gaehde, Carolingian Painting (London: Chatto & Windus, 1977), 25, 59, 61, plate 15; Jacqueline Lafontaine-Dosogne, “The Art of Byzantium and its Relation to Germany in the Time of the Empress Theophano,” in The Empress Theophano, ed. Adelbert Davids (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 214; Kahsnitz, “Bildnis,” 2:104–134.

  27. 27.

    O’Driscoll, Image, 20.

  28. 28.

    Hereafter generally abbreviated to Images 2 (MS 9395, fol. 15r) and 3 (MS 9395, fol. 15v).

  29. 29.

    Empress Adelheid and Odilo of Cluny (?) with Christ, Gospel Book, Metz, between 996 and 999 or before 1043, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS 9395, fol. 15r. The identity of the abbot is questionable; see discussion in the Section “Dating the Images”.

  30. 30.

    Aleksandr P. Kazhdan, Anthony Cutler, and Simon Franklin, eds., Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, 3 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), s.vv. “mandorla,” “Christ,” “transfiguration,” “ascension”; Herbert L. Kessler, “Image and Object,” in The Long Morning of Medieval Europe, eds. Jennifer R. Davis and Michael McCormick (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), 290–291, 299, 303; T. Noble, “Matter and Meaning in the Carolingian World,” in The Long Morning of Medieval Europe, 325–326.

  31. 31.

    Lynette Olson, pers. comm. to author, 10 June 2018.

  32. 32.

    “Hunc imperator habebat auricularium, hunc a secretis fidum internuntium.” Syrus, Vita sancti Maioli, ed. Dominique Iogna-Prat, in Agni Immaculati, 163–285 (Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1988), 2:22, pp. 242–243, poetically translated in Scott G. Bruce, “Local Sanctity and Civic Typology in Early Medieval Pavia,” in Cities, Texts, and Social Networks, 400–1500, eds Caroline Goodson, Anne Elisabeth Lester, and Carol Symes (Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate, 2010), 181.

  33. 33.

    Josef Fleckenstein, Die Hofkapelle der deutschen Könige, 2 vols., MGH Schriften 16 (Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1959–1966), 2:47, 2:74.

  34. 34.

    Liber generationis, Gospel Book, Metz, between 996 and 999 or before 1043, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS 9395, fol. 15v.

  35. 35.

    Elizabeth Saxon, “Carolingian, Ottonian and Romanesque Art and the Eucharist,” in A Companion to the Eucharist in the Middle Ages, eds. Ian Christopher Levy, Gary Macy, and Kristen Van Ausdall (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2012), 251–324.

  36. 36.

    Hereafter, Image 4 (MS 4452).

  37. 37.

    Dedication Scene with Henry II and Kunigunde Presented to Christ by Peter and Paul. Pericopes Book of Henry II, Reichenau, between 1007 and 1012, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm. 4452, fol. 2r. Garrison, Ottonian Imperial Art, 124–131, especially 128–131 and Plate 8, between 50 and 51; John Beckwith, Early Medieval Art (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1985), 111–113. Eliza Garrison, “Henry II’s Renovatio in the Pericope Book and Regensburg Sacramentary,” in The White Mantle of Churches, ed. Nigel Hiscock (Turnhout: Brepols, 2003), 57–74, esp. 60–64, 74; Mayr-Harting, Ottonian Book Illumination, 1:179–189.

  38. 38.

    Erkens, “Frau als Herrscherin,” 247, 250, 257–258; Markus Schütz, “Kunigunde,” in Die Kaiserinnen des Mittelalters, ed. Amalie Fößel (Regensburg: Friedrich Pustet, 2011), 78–99.

  39. 39.

    Mayr-Harting, Ottonian Book Illumination, 1:200.

  40. 40.

    Garrison, Ottonian Imperial Art, 155.

  41. 41.

    Henry Parkes, “Henry II, Liturgical Patronage and the Birth of the ‘Romano-German Pontifical’,” Early Medieval Europe 28.1 (2020): 104–141, especially 109–118, 123–141.

  42. 42.

    Janet L. Nelson, “Aachen as a Place of Power,” in Janet L. Nelson, Courts, Elites, and Gendered Power in the Early Middle Ages, XIV.1–23; Eliza Garrison, “Otto III at Aachen,” Peregrinations 3.1 (2011): 85.

  43. 43.

    Erkens, “Frau,” 257.

  44. 44.

    Euw, “Die ottonische Kölner Malerschule,” 264.

  45. 45.

    Euw, Vor dem Jahr 1000, 30.

  46. 46.

    O‘Driscoll, “Image,” 19–21.

  47. 47.

    Richard F. Gyug, “The Church of Dubrovnik and the Panniculus of Christ,” in Medieval Cultures in Contact, ed. Richard F. Gyug (New York: Fordham University Press, 2003), 61. See the covered hands of the Encomiast in Encomium Emmae and of the three Magi in the Benedictional of St Æthelwold in Catherine D. Karkov, “Emma: Image and Ideology,” in Early Medieval Studies in Memory of Patrick Wormald, eds. Stephen David Baxter, Catherine D. Karkov, Janet L. Nelson, et al. (London: Routledge, 2016), 510–512, 519.

  48. 48.

    Uta, for example, sponsored two luxury illuminated gospel books: Adam S. Cohen, “Abbess Uta of Regensburg and Patterns of Female Patronage Around 1000,” Aurora 4 (2003): 40–41.

  49. 49.

    See, for example, Ludger Körntgen, “Starke Frauen: Edgith-Adelheid-Theophanu,” in Otto der Große, Magdeburg und Europa, ed. Matthias Puhle, 2 vols. (Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2001), 1.124–26.

  50. 50.

    Maxence Hermant, “BnF. Archives et Manuscrits. Latin 9395,” accessed 13 December 2020, https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc77424w.

  51. 51.

    Carl Nordenfalk, “Rezension zu Bloch/Schnitzler 1967/70,” Kunstchronik 24 (1971): 304, 308; Rita Otto, “Zu Mainzer Handschriften des frühen Mittelalters,” Mainzer Zeitschrift. Mittelrheinisches Jahrbuch für Archäologie, Kunst und Geschichte 81 (1986): 1–32.

  52. 52.

    Schramm and Mütherich, Denkmale der deutschen Könige und Kaiser, 167–168.

  53. 53.

    Das Reich der Salier, 1024–1125: Katalog zur Ausstellung des Landes Rheinland-Pfalz (Sigmaringen: J. Thorbecke, 1992), 312.

  54. 54.

    Schramm, Die deutschen Kaiser und Könige, 101, 222, 227, 236.

  55. 55.

    Evangelia, eleventh century, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Latin 275, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b100267932, fols 40r, 75r, 112r. Schramm and Mütherich, Denkmale der deutschen Könige und Kaiser, 167–168, 486; Hoffmann, Buchkunst, 1.39–40n23.

  56. 56.

    See Nordenfalk, “Rezension,” 292–309.

  57. 57.

    See the analysis of the image in the catalogue of the exhibition: Metz enluminée. Autour de la Bible de Charles le Chauve. Trésor manuscrits des églises messines (Metz: Éditions Serpenoise, 1989), 142. For the Mainz view, see Otto, “Zu Mainzer Handschriften,” 1–32; Das Reich der Salier, 312.

  58. 58.

    For an open view: François Avril, Claudia Rabel, and Isabelle Delaunay, Manuscrits enluminés d’origine germanique. Tome I, Xe-XIVe siècle (Paris: Bibliothèque nationale de France, 1995), 75–77. For an overall summary: Fabrizio Crivello, “Un evangelario Ottoniano a Lucca (Biblioteca statale, ms. 1379),” Studi in onore del Kunsthistorisches Institut in Florenz per il suo centenario (1897–1997). Annali della scuola normale superiore di Pisa. Classe di Lettere e Filosofia Serie IV “Quaderni” 1–2 (1996): 5–6, 9n32. A number of references about the origin of MS 9395 have only been available to me in limited access because of restrictions on lending from international libraries during 2020, owing to the COVID-19 virus.

  59. 59.

    Henry II, Diplomata. Die Urkunden Henry II. und Arduins., eds. Harry Bresslau, Hermann Bloch, and Robert Holtzmann, MGH. Diplomata regum et imperatorum Germaniae. Die Urkunden der Deutschen Könige und Kaiser 3 (Hanover: publisher, 1900–1903), Nr. 18, Speyer, 28 September 1002.

  60. 60.

    Joachim Wollasch, “Das Grabkloster der Kaiserin Adelheid in Selz am Rhein,” Frühmittelalterliche Studien 2 (1968): 135–143, esp. 142.

  61. 61.

    Penelope Nash, Empress Adelheid and Countess Matilda (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 28–32; P. Jaffé, S. Loewenfeld, F. Kaltenbrunner et al., eds., Regesta pontificum Romanorum ab condita ecclesia ad annum post Christum natum 1198, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1885–88), 1:698, no. 5762; Franz Neiske, “La tradition nécrologique d’Adélaïde,” in Adélaïde de Bourgogne, eds. Patrick Corbet, Monique Gouillet, and Dominique Iogna-Prat (Dijon: Université de Dijon, 2002), 88–90; Herbert Paulhart, “Zur Heiligsprechung der Kaiserin Adelheid,” Mitteilungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung 64 (1956): 65–67.

  62. 62.

    Wollasch, “Grabkloster,” 140; Karl-Josef Benz, Unterschungen zur politischen Bedeutung der Kirchweihe unter Teilnahme der deutschen Herrscher im hohen Mittelalter, Regensburger Historische Forschungen 4 (Kallmünz: M. Lassleben, 1975), 60–61. Wollasch concludes that Henry’s diploma is later than 1002, but this does not affect my argument.

  63. 63.

    “L’Agnus Dei associé au Liber generationis figure également dans les Evangiles colonais de Saint-Géréon (Cologne, Stadtarchiv, cod. W. 312)”: Hermant, “Bnf. 9395.”

  64. 64.

    Crivello, pers. comm. to author, 15 May 2020.

  65. 65.

    Therese Martin, Reassessing the Roles of Women as “Makers” of Medieval Art and Architecture, 2 vols. (Boston, MA: Brill, 2012); Jitske Jasperse, Medieval Women, Material Culture, and Power (Leeds: ARC Humanities Press, 2020).

  66. 66.

    Alfred Overmann, Gräfin Mathilde von Tuscien. Ihre Besitzungen, Geschichte ihres Gutes von 1115–1230 und ihre Regesten (Innsbruck, 1895; repr. Frankfurt am Main,: Minerva, 1965), 50b-c, s.aa. 1096/1097, 162–163.

  67. 67.

    Liber miraculorum, eds Giuliano Sala and Giorgio Vedovelli (Torri del Benaco, 1990), ch. 10, 52; Wollasch, “Grabkloster,” 139.

  68. 68.

    I thank the Medieval and Early Modern Centre, School of Literature, Arts and Media, The University of Sydney, the Centre’s Director, Dr John Gagné, and especially Dr Lynette Olson. Professor Fabrizio Crivello clarified certain matters about MS 9395 and increased my understanding of the subject considerably. The anonymous reader gave much helpful advice.

Abbreviations

MGH :

Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Hanover, 1826–

SSrG :

Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum separatim editi, Hanover, 1871–

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    Penelope Nash

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Nash, P. (2022). Memories and Memorials of Literature and Art at the Turn of the First Millennium. In: Storey, G. (eds) Memorialising Premodern Monarchs. Queenship and Power. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84130-0_8

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