Abstract
This chapter explores the occasions when broadcasters in the UK have aired content that has criticised evolution, incorporating and contrasting broadcasts on both scientific criticism of evolutionary consensus and anti-evolution movements. The chapter demonstrates how in the 1980s an increased coverage of US creationism inadvertently gave a platform to an issue that was not part of mainstream discourse in the UK. The chapter argues that in using creationism as a narrative device to attract an audience, BBC science broadcasters sought to demarcate the boundary between science and pseudoscience, and in turn reinforced a dichotomous framing between evolution and religion.
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Notes
- 1.
Horizon, “Did Darwin get it Wrong?” Written and produced by Alec Nisbett, narrated by Paul Vaughan, March 30, 1981, BBC 2. The episode was repeated on BBC2 on April 5, 1981, and a version narrated by John Slack appeared in the US under the Nova brand via the PBS network. Interested readers can watch the US version of the documentary online at https://archive.org/details/DidDarwinGetItWrong (last accessed 03/06/2021). All BBC copyright content reproduced courtesy of the British Broadcasting Corporation. All rights reserved.
- 2.
For more on Duane T. Gish and the Institute for Creation Research see: Ronald Numbers, The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design, expanded edition (Harvard University Press, 2006), 239–267.
- 3.
Given Macbeth’s background as a lawyer, many in the scientific community dismissed his argument for non-Darwinian evolution as put forward in his book Darwin Retried: An Appeal to Reason (Gambit Incorporated, 1971). The book focused on some of the most famous proponents of the Modern Synthesis, notably Ernest Mayr (1904–2005), George Simpson (1902–1984) and Julian Huxley, and attempted to take apart their popular works using legal techniques to highlight contradictions, but often conflated Darwinism and Neo-Darwinism and completely misunderstood the processes of scientific progress. See: John Maynard Smith, “Counsel for the defence,” New Scientist, 22 August 1974, 476.
- 4.
The episode featured the following scientific ideas and evolutionary concepts: point mutation, jumping genes, gaps between genetic level theories and organism level evolution, bifurcation or branching of characteristics and neo-Lamarckian inheritance. In total, the one-hour broadcast only gave creationist and other non-scientific critiques of evolution around 7.5 minutes of airtime.
- 5.
Cowley, E. “Pick of the Day: Horizon.” The Daily Mail, March 30, 1981; and “Personal Choice.” The Times, March 30, 1981.
- 6.
The show was written and produced by long-serving Horizon producer Alec Nisbett, with input from series editor Simon Campbell-Jones; short interviews with both, in which they discuss the editorial and decision-making process of creating Horizon episodes can be watched online: “Horizon at 50-interviews”, History of the BBC, https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/research/horizon-at-50-interviews (last accessed 05/06/21).
- 7.
Eric Korn, “remainders”, The Times Literary Supplement, May 15, 1981, 541.
- 8.
While today readers may be most familiar with this criticism in relation to the BBC’s coverage of the climate crisis (e.g. Bob Ward, “The BBC is sacrificing objectivity for impartiality in its coverage of climate change”, British Politics and Policy at LSE, 2012. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/48416), it is a charge that has long been raised at science programming generally, and the show Horizon specifically. For example, the Horizon episode, “Worlds in Collison” (1973), which dedicated an entire hour to the discredited pseudo-scientific and pseudohistorical theories of Dr Immanuel Velikovsky (1895–1979) was criticised by scientific commentators. For some examples of the reaction to this episode of Horizon see: “Letters”, New Scientist , January 25, 1973, 210–211.
- 9.
For more on the history of the Scopes Trial, and in particular the divergence from popular accounts which frame it as primarily about science versus religion, rather than as a contestation between religious modernists and fundamentalists in the US, see: Adam R. Shapiro, Trying Biology: The Scopes Trial, Textbooks, and the Antievolution Movement in American Schools (University of Chicago Press, 2013), 1–13.
- 10.
Inherit the Wind, written by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee, adapted by Nicholas Bethell, BBC Home Service, December 27, 1965. Lawrence and Lee’s play premiered in Dallas in January 1955, and following rave reviews ran on Broadway from April 1955 until 1957. The only other BBC broadcast on the Scopes Trial pre-1980s was part of a BBC Radio 4 series on famous US trials broadcast in 1967–1968: “Evolution in Tennessee”, Famous American Trials, written and narrated by Edgar Lustgarten, August 14, 1968, BBC Radio 4.
- 11.
The playwrights called the defence lawyer Henry Drummond in a knowing nod to the 19th evangelical and theistic evolutionist Henry Drummond (1851–1897). Bernard Lightman, ‘Darwin and the Popularization of Evolution’, Notes and Records of the Royal Society, 2010, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsnr.2009.0007; and “today’s tv and sound,” The Observer, October 10, 1965, 22.
- 12.
“Inherit the Controversy”, Newsday (New York), March 17, 1996, 85.
- 13.
Despite the historical context of the plays’ publication and the authors’ original intentions, Inherit the Wind has not always been interpreted as fiction, particularly in the US where the play and film have remained popular in educational contexts. See Randy Moore, ‘Creationism in the United States: VII. The Lingering Impact of “Inherit the Wind”’, The American Biology Teacher 61:4 (1999): 246–250, https://doi.org/10.2307/4450666.
- 14.
Viewpoint was a fortnightly programme on BBC TV, which aimed to give a Christian perspective on current affairs and topical problems. A flagship series for the Religion Department it ran from 1959 to 1973.
- 15.
“Can We Bury the Hatchet?”, Viewpoint, written and presented by John Wren-Lewis, produced by Vernon Sproxton, October 5, 1960, BBC TV, microfilm transcript, BBC-WA, 6.
- 16.
For a collection of essays and articles written by John Wren-Lewis visit: https://www.capacitie.org/wren/archive.htm (last accessed 10/06/21).
- 17.
“Can We Bury the Hatchet?” microfilm transcript, BBC-WA, 7.
- 18.
The Reith Lectures , “A Runaway World?”, written and presented by Edmund Leach, November to December 1967, BBC Radio 4. The lectures were also repeated in an earlier slot the following day on BBC Radio 3, and serialised in the BBC magazine The Listener.
- 19.
The six talks were titled, “Men and Nature”, “Men and Machines”, “Ourselves and Others”, “Men and Morality”, “Men and Learning” and “Only Connect”. Recordings of parts three and six of the lectures can be listened to online: https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00h3xy8/episodes/player (last accessed 10/06/21).
- 20.
When drafting the lectures Leach took as a starting point the concluding remarks of a 1963 conference on “Man and His Future” between Julian Huxley, Peter Medawar, and neurologist Russell Brain (1895–1966). Edmund Leach, A Runaway World? The B.B.C. Reith Lectures 1967 (Oxford University Press, 1968), vii–ix.
- 21.
Edmund Leach, A Runaway World?, 5.
- 22.
In a follow-up debate on BBC Radio 3 featuring Leach, Peter Medawar and Alasdair MacIntyre (1929–present), this question of how best to manage such a scientific co-operative future was discussed in more depth. “A Runaway World Pursued”, January 1, 1968, BBC Radio 3. For more on this debate and Leach’s Reith Lectures see: Stanley J. Tambiah, Edmund Leach: An Anthropological Life (Cambridge University Press, 2002), 380–403.
- 23.
Douglas Woodruff, “Talking at Random”, The Tablet, December 2, 1967, 23.
- 24.
Edmund Leach, A Runaway World?, 18.
- 25.
BBC Audience Research Report, “The Reith Lectures 1967: A Runaway World? by Edmund Leach, 1: Men and Women [SIC]”, December 29, 1967, BBC-WA.
- 26.
Reflecting the huge social changes that had occurred in British society since Huxley’s early scientific humanist broadcasts, the BBC, and in particular the Head of Talks, George Camacho staunchly defended Leach’s selection, and their remit—as had been highlighted in the Pilkington Committee Report of 1962, to give reasonable airtime to humanist and agnostic views. See R51-1252/3, BBC-WA.
- 27.
The People and the Book , presented by Brian Redhead, written and produced by Fraser Steel, September to December 1975, BBC Radio 4.
- 28.
For a recent history that deals in more detail with the nuance of late nineteenth-century science and religion debates triggered by Darwin and Wallace’s publications see: James C. Ungureanu, Science, Religion, and the Protestant Tradition: Retracing the Origins of Conflict (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2019).
- 29.
“Leave me my Ancestors in Paradise”, The People and the Book , presented by Brian Redhead, written and produced by Fraser Steel, October 19, 1975, BBC Radio 4. Microfilm, Talks Scripts 167/168, BBC-WA. All BBC copyright content reproduced courtesy of the British Broadcasting Corporation. All rights reserved.
- 30.
For discussion of this effect in relation to science journalism see: Maxwell T. Boykoff, Who Speaks for the Climate?: Making Sense of Media Reporting on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2011), 100–109; Timothy Caulfield, ‘Popular Media, Biotechnology, and the “Cycle of Hype”’, The Mass Media’s Influence on Health Law and Policy Symposium, Houston Journal of Health Law & Policy 5:2 (2005): 213–234.
- 31.
From 1955 onwards Desmond Morris was a regular on BBC natural history content, particularly children’s educational radio, and as Head of the Granada TV and Film Unit at the Zoological Society of London, he was a regular on ITV, particularly through their flagship natural history programme Zootime (Chap. 4). Despite moving to a curatorial role at the Zoological Society of London in 1959, he remained a regular on a wide range of British broadcasts through the 1960s. The Naked Ape received widespread media attention, most notably, it was serialised in the Daily Mirror and was the subject of a dedicated episode of the natural history series Life (1965–1968) on which Morris was a regular contributor and narrator. Although well received in the popular press, Morris’ Naked Ape was widely criticised by academics, see for example: Russell H. Tuttle, review of ‘Review of The Naked Ape: A Zoologist’s Study of the Human Animal; The Apes: The Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Orangutan and Gibbon – Their History and Their World, by Desmond Morris and Vernon Reynolds’, American Anthropologist 70:6 (1968): 1238–1240; and John Lewis and Bernard Towers, Naked Ape or Homo Sapiens? (Garnstone Press, 1972), http://archive.org/details/nakedapeorhomosa00lewi. More recently, the book has been criticised for its reductionist overreliance on the mechanism of natural selection, and as an example of poor science communication, blurring the line between speculative conjecture and empirical scientific consensus, which helps embed erroneous scientific ideas in popular culture. See: Nico M. van Straalen, ‘The Naked Ape as an Evolutionary Model, 50 Years Later’, Animal Biology 68:3 (2018): 227–246, https://doi.org/10.1163/15707563-17000167; Adam Rutherford, Humanimal: How Homo Sapiens Became Nature’s Most Paradoxical Creature—A New Evolutionary History (The Experiment, 2019); Erika Lorraine Milam, Creatures of Cain: The Hunt for Human Nature in Cold War America (Princeton University Press, 2019), 113–123.
- 32.
Parkinson, October 8, 1977, BBC One. A short clip of the exchange between Morris and Dors can be found online at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tvVa0bpeeGM (last accessed 15/06/21).
- 33.
See Alister Hardy, “Was Man More Aquatic in the Past?”, The New Scientist, March 17, 1960, 642–645; and Has Man an Aquatic Past?, written and presented by Alister Hardy, April 29, 1960, BBC Third Programme.
- 34.
Alister Hardy, The Living Stream (Harper & Row, 1965), 30–40.
- 35.
Desmond Morris, The Naked Ape: A zoologist’s study of the human animal (Jonathan Cape, 1967), 40–45.
- 36.
Robert Foley and Marta Mirazón Lahr, ‘The Role of “the Aquatic” in Human Evolution: Constraining the Aquatic Ape Hypothesis’, Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 23:2 (2014): 56–59, https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21405. For a historical account of one of the most interesting re-workings of Hardy’s original thesis, writer Elaine Morgan’s feminist deconstruction of human anthropologies overly male-centred focus as first outlined in The Descent of Woman (1972), see Erika Lorraine Milam, “Dunking the Tarzanists: Elaine Morgan and the Aquatic Ape Theory”, in Oren Harman and Michael R. Dietrich (Eds), Outsider Scientists: Routes to Innovation in Biology (University of Chicago Press, 2013), 223–234.
- 37.
The Waterside Ape, written and presented by David Attenborough, September 14 & 15, 2016, BBC Radio 4. Available online at https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07w4y98/episodes/player (last accessed 16/06/21).
- 38.
See Alice Roberts and Mark Maslin, “Sorry David Attenborough, we didn’t evolve from ‘aquatic apes’—here’s why”, The Conversation, September 16, 2016, https://theconversation.com/sorry-david-attenborough-we-didnt-evolve-from-aquatic-apes-heres-why-65570 (last accessed 17/06/2021). The Guardian, The Independent and the Scientific American among others picked up this online article.
- 39.
Nigel Calder, The Life Game: Evolution and the New Biology (Viking Press, 1974), http://archive.org/details/lifegameevolutio0000cald, 9.
- 40.
For example, God-in-a-Box, written and presented by Colin Morris, January 10, 1984, BBC Two; and the subsequent book that followed the programme: Colin Morris, God-in-a-box: Christian strategy in the television age (Hodder and Stoughton, 1984), 194–199.
- 41.
Numbers, The Creationists, 351–362.
- 42.
The Google Book N-Gram Viewer for the words “creationist” and “creationism” shows, for the American English Corpus (1800–2009) a sharp uptick beginning in 1975, and for the British English Corpus (1800–2009), a slightly smaller and delayed, uptick in the words’ use beginning in around 1979. In both corpora frequency peaks in around 1985–1986, and again from a second wave in around 2007–2008. A similar pattern can be observed when running term frequency enquiries on UK newspaper databases, such as the Gale Primary Sources collection. For another broadcast example see: “87—Thy Kingdom Come”, Viewpoint, written and presented by Anthony Thomas, April 14, 1987, ITV.
- 43.
Woman’s Hour, presented by Sue MacGregor, July 30, 1981, BBC Radio 4. Partial transcript available on microfilm at BBC-WA.
- 44.
The broadcast was part of the course materials for the module, ‘Science and belief: from Darwin to Einstein’ (A381), which ran at the Open University from 1981 to 1987, and followed on from the course ‘Science and belief: from Copernicus to Darwin’ (AMST 283) introduced in Chap. 4. For more information, including an overview of the syllabus and accompanying radio and TV broadcasts see the Open University Digital Archive page at https://www.open.ac.uk/library/digital-archive/module/xcri:A381/ (last accessed 19/02/2021). All BBC copyright content reproduced courtesy of the British Broadcasting Corporation. All rights reserved.
- 45.
Horizon, “The Blind Watchmaker”, written, presented and co-produced by Richard Dawkins, January 19, 1987, BBC 2. Those interested can watch the documentary online at https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x223a3n (last accessed 19.06.21).
- 46.
By the 1980s this approach, which saw the alignment of science content across different media, most regularly alongside a popular science book was common. Over ten years earlier, the same approach was used alongside Dawkins’ The Selfish Gene (1976), which also featured as the focus of a Horizon episode. Horizon, “The Selfish Gene”, November 15, 1976, BBC Two; and Horizon: The Selfish Gene (Science Features), T63/109/1, BBC-WA.
- 47.
While “The Blind Watchmaker” documentary came relatively early in Richard Dawkins science communication career, the bombastic tone and reductionist view of science evident in this episode of Horizon would go on to become a hallmark of his style, and latterly of the wider “New Atheist” movement. For a later much more explicitly polemic example see: The Root of All Evil?, written by Richard Dawkins, produced by Alan Clements, Channel 4, January 2006: https://vimeo.com/27692770 (last accessed 23/06/2021). For a review of a 1996 Dawkins’ TV episode that highlighted these qualities see: Michael Walsh, “Television”, The Tablet, October 5, 1996, 21–22; and for more on the language of the New Atheist movement see: Stephen Ledrew, ‘Scientism, Humanism, and Religion: The New Atheism and the Rise of the Secular Movement’ (York University, PhD Thesis, 2013), 56–96.
- 48.
Simon Locke, Constructing the Beginning: Discourses of Creation Science (Taylor & Francis, 1998), 63.
- 49.
Horizon, “A War on Science”, produced by James van Der Pool, January 26, 2006, BBC 2.
- 50.
“Horizon”, Radio Times, Issue 4268, January 19, 2006, 94.
- 51.
For an introduction to the deficit model and an overview of its widespread scholarly critique see Chap. 4 in Jane Gregory and Steven Miller, Science In Public (Basic Books, 2000).
- 52.
While reliable data on the prevalence of literal creationist views in the UK during the 1980s is limited, a more recent 2015 survey showed that only around 9% of the British public have a literalist creationist worldview. That is, that when surveyed they agreed with the statement, “Humans and other living things were created by God and have always existed in their current form”. Fern Elsdon-Baker et al., “Results of Major New Survey on Evolution,” press release, Science and Religion: Exploring the Spectrum (blog), September 5, 2017, https://sciencereligionspectrum.org/in-the-news/press-release-results-of-major-new-survey-on-evolution/ (last accessed 21/06/21). For more on some of the challenges assessing and understanding public attitudes towards evolution in the UK see: Fern Elsdon-Baker, “Creating hardline ‘secular’ evolutionists: The influence of question design on our understanding of public perceptions of clash narratives between evolutionary science and belief” in Fern Elsdon-Baker and Bernard Lightman (Eds), Identity in a Secular Age: Science, Religion, and Public Perception (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2020).
- 53.
For more on science as a part of social identity and these themes in a range of contexts see Elsdon-Baker and Lightman.
- 54.
Everyman, “Science Friction: Creation”, produced by Paul Sapin, September 8, 1996, BBC 1. The subsequent two episodes in the trilogy were on “Genes” and “Miracles”. The title, “Science Friction” was first used by the BBC for a Radio 4 series, which ran from 1990 to 1993 and looked at the appliance of science in daily life. Those interested can watch “Science Friction – Creation” online at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ul8cRbIv6eE (last accessed 21/06/21).
- 55.
Michael Walsh, “Television”, The Tablet, September 14, 1996, 24.
- 56.
Using Genesis to connect the Bible and the Torah, the broadcast interviewed Rabbi Malcolm Wiseman who explained that while for some fundamentalists evolutionary science may present issues, the majority of Jewish people interpreted Genesis as an allegorical story, and as such, evolutionary science did not cause any issues. Like the OU broadcasts on this subject in the period, the historian featured was James Moore. In the Beginning, presented by Robert Foxcroft, produced by Sarah Widdows, July 14, 1981, BBC Radio 4. Transcript on microfilm at BBC-WA. All BBC copyright content reproduced courtesy of the British Broadcasting Corporation. All rights reserved.
- 57.
Gower went on to become a Professor of Biochemistry at the University of London and throughout his career remained a vocal anti-evolutionist and creationist. For more on his own personal views on the subject see Chapter 28 in: John F. Ashton, In Six Days: Why Fifty 50 Scientists Choose to Believe in Creation (New Leaf Publishing Group, 2001). For more on Nigel Cameron, the Biblical Creationist Society, and Edgar Andrews see: Numbers, The Creationists, 357–360.
- 58.
By the mid-1980s, the Biblical Creation Society had 750 members. Numbers, The Creationists, 358.
- 59.
The 2015 SRES/YouGov survey found that 16% of those who identified as religious or spiritual held the creationist belief that, “Humans and other living things were created by God and have always existed in their current form”. Remembering that this top-level data includes those from all religious groups and non-traditional spiritual beliefs, and only an extreme fraction of this 16% is likely to be part of formalized anti-evolution organizations. Fern Elsdon-Baker et al., “Results of Major New Survey on Evolution,” press release, Science and Religion: Exploring the Spectrum (blog), September 5, 2017, https://sciencereligionspectrum.org/in-the-news/press-release-results-of-major-new-survey-on-evolution/ (last accessed 21/06/21).
- 60.
Although from the 1980s onwards the BBC gave a small platform to creationist ideas, the role of the British media in promoting the ideology was still extremely limited compared to the central role broadcast media played in debates in the US. For a clear juxtaposition of these national contexts, see two films aired almost back to back on the US Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network in 2014. The first was a wide-ranging talk on the “Media Coverage of Religion”, given by the BBC Religious Affairs correspondent, Jane Little covering her experiences during the 1990s and beyond, which does not mention creationism; and the second is the infamous “Evolution Versus Creationism Debate”, featuring science broadcaster Bill Nye and Christian fundamentalist and founder of Answers in Genesis, Ken Ham. Both broadcasts, in their originally aired format and scheduling, can be viewed online at https://archive.org/details/CSPAN_20140223_044300_Evolution_Versus_Creationism_Debate (last accessed 20/06/2021).
- 61.
For an early example, see the first episode of a ten-part television series on molecular biology: What is Life?, “In the Beginning was the Cell”, presented by Professor Asher Korner and Dr Geoffrey Eglinton, directed by Mary Hoskins, October 9, 1967, BBC One.
- 62.
The Making of Mankind, “In the Beginning”, written and presented by Richard Leakey, February 3, 1982, BBC Two; and Imagined Worlds, “Serpent in the Garden of Eden”, March 8, 1982, BBC Two.
- 63.
“Imagined Worlds”, The Radio Times, Issue 3043, March 4, 1982, 43.
- 64.
This three-part series of dramatised debates, originally aired for schools, featured a computer hologram playing scientific intellectuals from history brought to life to challenge the beliefs of modern scientists. In the second episode, “In the Beginning”, the computer called up Huxley and Wilberforce in an attempt to reconcile their differences on scientific responsibility. The Scientists, “In the Beginning”, written by Jim Hawkins, directed by Michael Coyle, May 13, 1980, BBC Two; and Elizabeth Cowley, “The Scientists”, The Daily Mail, May 6, 1980, 23.
- 65.
Callum G. Brown, The Death of Christian Britain (Routledge, 2013).
- 66.
See, for example, the 1984 BBC airing of the religious epic film The Bible … In the Beginning (1966). The Bible … In the Beginning, screenplay by Christopher Fry, directed by John Huston, April 12, 1984, BBC Two. The film is available online: https://archive.org/details/The_Bible_In_The_Beginning (last accessed 23/02/21).
- 67.
Henry Gee, “Aquatic apes are the stuff of creationism, not evolution”, The Guardian, May 7, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/science/occams-corner/2013/may/07/aquatic-apes-creationism-evolution (last accessed 17/02/21).
- 68.
See Elsdon-Baker and Lightman, Identity in a Secular Age.
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Hall, A. (2021). Creationism and Non-Darwinian Ideology in British Broadcasting. In: Evolution on British Television and Radio. Palgrave Studies in Science and Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83043-4_7
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