Abstract
Chapter 3 focuses on the problematics of (non) belonging in Miano’s Tels, Afropean, and her essays, Devi’s Les Hommes and Mokkedem’s Mes Hommes. Drawing on Nancy’s notion of community I examine the in-between positionality of Miano’s male protagonists as immigrants’ children in France, through a reading of Critical Race theory, and Miano’s own theories of community. The notion of myth, which Nancy discusses as undergirding the notion of community is explored through the ‘Fils de Kemet’ group in Tels, while the concept of being in-between France and Africa is explored with ‘Afropean Soul’. I then discuss Mokeddem’s text as a singular voice fighting against Islamic patriarchal masculinity, through the lens of Ahmed’s (Willful Subjects. Durham: Duke University Press, 2014a; Living a Feminist Life. Durham: Duke University Press, 2017) notion of willfulness. The protagonist’s relationship with her father and her subsequent relationships with a range of men are analyzed. Similarly, Devi’s text creates a new community of men with whom she can dialogue and exchange ideas, a writing community, as outlined by Nancy, which allows her to recover her own individuality. Ultimately, the different forms which community takes in this chapter enable the writers to reconfigure masculinities as loving and vulnerable and equally affected by patriarchy as women.
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Notes
- 1.
This crime occurred in the aftermath of Breonna Taylor’s shooting in her own apartment by policemen, Ahmaud Arbery’s demise at the hands of vigilantes, one of whom was a retired police officer, and weeks after a young New Yorker, walking her unleashed dog in a park, threatened to call the police on an African American man who had politely asked her to put the dog on the leash.
- 2.
See Révolution Permanente (2020) ‘Justice pour Adama: Le discours poignant d’Assa Traoré’.
- 3.
See also Barrett and Roedinger on immigration and feeling ‘in-between’ (1997).
- 4.
According to Hitchcott and Thomas (2014), Afropean refers to a number of people who were born in France (or Europe) but whose origins can be anywhere in the Sub-Saharan region.
- 5.
- 6.
- 7.
See also Appiah’s (2018) reflections on identity when one is at the crossroads of cultures, class, creed and even countries.
- 8.
- 9.
See de Maillard et al. (2017).
- 10.
Though Kinouani (2021) argues that Black individuals are regularly discriminated against be they children, adults, men or women.
- 11.
See Vermeren (2014).
- 12.
- 13.
For the full coverage see France 24 (2010).
- 14.
- 15.
See Gilroy (2005).
- 16.
‘Afrodescendants’ refers to anyone whose parents, grandparents and ancestors originate from Sub-Saharan Africa, regardless of whether they were born in island territories or Europe.
- 17.
See Verpeaux (2014).
- 18.
According to Bessone (2013; Bessone and Sabbagh 2015) it is important to speak about race as it is a social issue that must be tackled. If it is impossible to speak about it as it is disavowed, then it cannot be problematized. Bessone argues that the onus is on philosophers to change the ways in which race is conceptualized and discussed. See also Hall’s discussion of race as a ‘discursive construct, a sliding signifier’ (2017: 32).
- 19.
- 20.
Conversely, Larcher et al. (2018) have recently published an edited volume on the discrimination experienced by Black French women in French society. However, here Miano is specifically looking at physical violence and random stop checks which often target Black men.
- 21.
See also Traoré and de Lagasnerie (2019).
- 22.
Amok too becomes Daniel Laurent as I discussed in Chap. 2.
- 23.
Knox argues that Tels ‘probes the relationship between minorities’ literal (in)visibility within predominantly whitewashed mediascapes […]’ (2016: 94). However, ‘far from pointing out the absence of racial and ethnic minorities […] the novel puts itself forth as its own Afropean mediascape’ (2016: 94). Knox’s article focuses on the privileged white heteronormative gaze and its tendency to whitewash and strip not only media but also history and memory (2016: 96).
- 24.
Kinouani (2021) also discusses the shame that Black individuals experience due to their bodily difference.
- 25.
In Niang’s documentary Les Mariannes noires (Niang and Nielsen 2016), several of the interviewees also speak of the ‘écartèlement’ they experience between their French identity and their Sub-Saharan African origins. In Identités françaises (2019), she discusses the difficulty of integrating these bodies in the French Republic.
- 26.
See Bakhtin (1981).
- 27.
- 28.
Pursuant to Cohen’s definition (1997), there are two types of diasporas, the first compelled, as in the case of the Jews and African slaves, the second willed, as is the case of socio-economic migrants. Afropeans can encompass both children born to descendants of former slaves living in the Caribbean who have moved to France and have families there, as well as children born in France of migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa.
- 29.
See also Lefilleul (2014).
- 30.
See Gagiano’s (2018) examination of Fanon’s humanism.
- 31.
In light of the skirmishes and acts of violence in the USA in the aftermath of George Floyd’s death, the institutionalized racism in both countries is flagrant. Assa Traoré was certain that it is to avoid the same reactions in the streets of France that Adama’s case is not elucidated. See BFMTV (2020).
- 32.
In Morrison’s words: ‘There are no strangers. There are only versions of ourselves, many of which we have not embraced, most of which we wish to protect ourselves from. For the stranger is not foreign, she is random; not alien but remembered; and it is the randomness of the encounter with our already known—although unacknowledged—selves that summons a ripple of alarm’ (2017: 38–9). Morrison’s words echo Kristeva’s notion of ‘étrangers du dedans’ which I explored in the first chapter in relation to hospitality.
- 33.
See Hitchcott and Thomas (2014).
- 34.
According to Biller and Weiss, the father has a role to play in determining how the girl’s sexuality and her own relationships with men will develop (1970: 79).
- 35.
- 36.
However, this does not, of course, mean that Mokeddem does not change or choose which aspects are included and how the text is constructed. The plotting is itself carried out with specific events highlighted more than others and certain men garnering more interest than others.
- 37.
- 38.
Downing offers the notion of ‘self-ful’ as a means of countering dominant paradigms of women as ‘selfless’ beings and as a ‘value-judgement-free alternative to selfishness’ (2019: 3).
- 39.
See also Kistnareddy (Forthcoming 2022).
- 40.
- 41.
See Vince (2010).
- 42.
This is also similar to the inside/outside gender division I identified with Confucian values in my examination of Vi in the previous chapter, lending credence to Bourdieu’s premise that most patriarchal societies operate in the same fashion.
- 43.
This is in line with Connell’s (1995) notion of hegemonic masculinity wherein such hegemony is facilitated by both men and women who perpetuate the hierarchy as I discuss in the introduction to the present study.
- 44.
- 45.
This is reminiscent of Halberstam’s notion of ‘female masculinity’ (2002). Halberstam’s theory is based on the fact that masculinity is not the property of men alone. Whilst it is not ‘an imitation of maleness, female masculinity actually affords us a glimpse of how masculinity is constructed as masculinity’ (2002: 355).
- 46.
See Szymanski et al. (2011).
- 47.
Female libido is set up as one of the significant aspects of Malika’s power here. Freud famously stated that there was only one libido, the masculine one, in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905). Mokeddem evidently focuses on the equality of female sexuality, but when she describes her behaviour as ‘macho’ (2005: 69), it attenuates the effect as the focus is on the masculine rather than her own femininity.
- 48.
This evokes orientalist tropes as discussed by Said in Orientalism (1978) wherein the West always seeks to conquer the feminine East, which is deemed to be exotic. Here Mokeddem once again reverses another masculine trope.
- 49.
See Downing’s discussion of this notion in Selfish Women (2019).
- 50.
In La Communauté inavouable, Blanchot speaks of the impossibility of loving and the community of those who do not belong elsewhere. For Blanchot, love is ‘jamais sûr’ and can take the form of ‘l’impossibilité d’aimer’ (1983: 58). According to Blanchot, examining Duras’s La Maladie de la mort (1982), love brings about community in its absence rather than in its presence. Malika begins her journey back to her father when she encounters unrequited love for the first time as well.
- 51.
See also Kistnareddy (2015b).
- 52.
See Jakupcak et al. (2005).
- 53.
This is similar to the notion of masculinity that Bourdieu (1998) finds in Algerian society as discussed earlier.
- 54.
See also Grell’s (2014) extended discussion of the different forms of autofiction.
- 55.
For Gasparini, ‘autofiction’ is a ‘lieu d’incertitude et de réflexion’ (2016: 7). It can mean different concepts to a range of theorists: for instance, for Genette in Fiction et diction, autofiction was pure fiction, in the sense that all details are inventions even though the writer’s name is real.
- 56.
This is akin to what psychiatrist R.D. Laing calls the ‘divided self’ in his work of the same name (1969).
- 57.
I explore this further in Kistnareddy (2015a).
- 58.
Darrieussecq also echoes this idea of other skins in her address “Je est unE autre” (2007). While Darrieussecq describes herself wearing fictional identities as skins in her texts, here Devi sees her own multiplicity as skins she wears and sheds through writing as she reflects on her own life.
- 59.
In his discussion of the self and morality in Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity, Taylor emphasizes the fact that the imperative to do good is a craving that marks humanity (Taylor: 2004: 44). When one fails to achieve this one chastises oneself as having a sense of ‘being evil’ (2004: 44). In this case, Devi is toying with the notion that the new space where her quest for identity has taken her could take away the need to police herself morally. Ironically, being able to lie could lead to positive outcomes in her novels. In this way, she complexifies the relationship between good and evil both within herself and in the world of writing.
- 60.
Brouillette herself constructs her argument on Huggan’s notion of the “postcolonial exotic” (Huggan 2001).
- 61.
See Darrieussecq (1996) “L’Autofiction, un genre pas sérieux”.
- 62.
The concept of intertextuality has been proffered in different guises by a few theorists: notably Bakhtin’s notion of heteroglossia in The Dialogic Imagination (1981) or Genette’s ‘trans-textualité’ (1982). While Bakhtin’s heteroglossia explored the ways in which languages and words from different languages are present in enunciations, Genette’s ‘trans-textualité’ which he develops in Palimpsestes (1982) argues that poetics must go beyond the text to the other texts to which it refers. It is due to this multiplicity in the terms that such a concept takes that Gignoux calls it a ‘flou terminologique’ (2006: 1).
- 63.
Kellman (2001) underlines that being translingual is either writing in another language which is not one’s mother tongue or writing between different languages. Devi in this case reads, quotes and listens to music in different languages.
- 64.
See Ramazani (2009).
References
Primary Texts
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Kistnareddy, A.O. (2021). Reconfiguring Community and Masculinities. In: Migrant Masculinities in Women’s Writing. Global Masculinities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82576-8_3
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