Background to the study

The Virunga National Park (Parc National des Virunga) is situated in the Albertine Rift Valley in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the south-western part of Uganda near Lake George and Lake Edward, and the north-western part of Ruhengeri in Rwanda. It was created in 1925 and is one of the first protected areas in Africa, enlisted as a UNESCO World Heritage property in 1979. The park is host to one of the world’s most famous populations of mountain gorillas but it has been hit by rising instabilities, an influx of refugees, poaching, smuggling activities and violence caused by various rebel groups, such as the Mai-Mai militia and other smugglers, including the recent killing of 12 rangers and the abduction of 2 British tourists in 2018.

Virunga is also surrounded by Uganda’s beautiful Semuliki River, the Rwenzori Mountains, the Queen Elizabeth National Park and, to the south, by Rwanda’s Volcanoes National Park.

The biodiversity balance is enhanced by good climatic conditions, moderate temperatures and mean monthly rainfall, with El-Niño in some parts from September to November. This kind of intertropical convergence zone has led to the growth of montane forests, riverine forests, canopies formed by bamboo species, and attractive habitats provided by the flowing rivers for various species of fauna like lions, African bush elephants, golden monkeys, giant pangolins and Nile crocodiles from the Semuliki River. Birds species include blue-headed sunbirds, handsome francolins, African olive pigeons, African hobbies, mountain greenbuls, red-eyed doves and brown-necked parrots, among others.

The numerous armed conflicts between Rwanda, Uganda and Goma (DRC) from 2003 onwards and the rebel activities across these three states have been the cause of considerable instability and loss of life. Burke (2018) indicates that over 175 rangers have been killed, property and even conservation works have been destroyed, and tourism and other protected areas have been adversely affected. Therefore, considerable efforts will be required to strengthen the presence of responsible authority through restoring cooperation mechanisms; clear communication with the local communities; creating a buffer zone; developing a joint interstate security department; developing a sustainable funding mechanism from all three countries responsible for this park; and attracting international funding in order to establish a high-standard, sustainable heritage site.

The overall objective of this study is to achieve a sustainable and a peaceful Virunga Park, free from the instabilities brought about by interstate militias and rebels, with local communities and neighbours fully engaged in and benefiting from this heritage site through activities such as eco-tourism, bee-keeping, arts and crafts, intercultural festivals, carnivals, etc. The rationale behind all this is to efficiently and effectively formulate a sustainable, transnational collaborative strategic plan of the Virunga protected area.

A variety of methods were used, including bottom-up approaches such as Participatory Rural Appraisals, Environmental Impact Assessments, Peace Conflict Impact assessments and the Sustainable World Heritage Tourism Checklist (SWHTC), in order to analyse data both quantitatively and qualitatively. Computations of variables were analysed and interpreted, and a report was then generated.

Statement of the problem

The DRC, Rwandan and Ugandan governments have found that the greatest impediment to achieving sustainable economic development within the study area is the lack of peace and stability caused by multiple armed groups and militias operating in the protected areas of Virunga.

Therefore, a transnational joint strategic plan for tourism and heritage needs to be put in place to sustainably and effectively safeguard the tourism sites and other economic activities, together with the surrounding communities of the three neighbouring countries of this Great Lakes region.

Specific objectives of the study

  • To actively involve the local neighbouring communities in a strategic heritage programme.

  • To support community-based economic activities, such as eco-tourism, art and craft shops, bee-keeping and agro-forestry systems.

  • To form a joint transnational operational network of security and surveillance game rangers.

  • To support education and training activities for all key stakeholders, e.g. site managers, rangers and local leaders.

Research questions

  • How can we prevent instabilities and armed conflicts in the transnational protected site of Virunga?

  • What are the likely major challenges facing the Virunga transnational protected area?

  • Suggest possible practical solutions to address the problems/challenges facing the Virunga transnational protected area.

Scope of the study

The study covered the surrounding communities of Uganda, Rwanda and Congo as key representatives in this region, guided by local and inter-state authorities from all three countries. Meetings were held with a random sample of 17 key informants, using snowball sampling and standardized in-depth interview techniques. Quantitative data from the field was edited, coded and tabulated, whereas qualitative data was systematically analysed.

Significance of the study

The study’s contribution is to provide valid information and methods to the governments of the DRC, Rwanda and Uganda to enable the optimal management and sharing of their transnational natural resources.

The research provided data to the local, regional and inter-state communities and authorities on the multiple benefits that could be achieved if this park were well promoted and maintained by all the key stakeholders. Job opportunities and businesses would increase, leading to improved incomes, peace and stability, and more revenues to local authorities from tourism activities.

Conceptual framework

The research focused on the state-of the-art knowledge and technology needed to develop an innovative and sustainable strategic plan, in order to produce viable frameworks and policies based on independent variables to attract investment in the protected areas of the Virunga heritage site, and to attract global attention through international heritage development and community engagement projects in the different surrounding communities.

There are a number of interventions that can lead to positive outcomes or changes in sustainable transnational collaboration and development projects within these protected areas of Virunga. For example: forming joint security committees, training and educating game rangers, local leaders and involving whole communities in development projects – a key strategy in this research.

The dependent variables are showing the expected outcomes now that this programme is more fully implemented, i.e. improved peace and stability, increased tourist numbers, job creation, environmental protection, conservation of rare species formerly targeted by poachers, and a slight reduction in charcoal burning in the park.

Literature review

This section examines the socio-economic factors underpinning practical solutions and the outcomes obtained from the strategic transnational collaborative plan, which were then put into practice by the member states sharing this protected area of Virunga.

Inclusive local community development projects

Whiteman (2004) noted that the following elements are necessary to build sustainable communities: (i) ideas for inclusive projects or groups; (ii) making innovative and impactful efforts to ensure that all marginalized communities become part of the mainstream programme; and (iii) everyone takes part in decision-making at different levels of their community – no one is left behind.

This means involving local communities in any project within their localities. Research has shown that these projects are likely to be successful.

Therefore, if we are to develop a successful tourism industry in Virunga, this must entail the involvement of all the local communities.

Creating sustainable small regional economic communities (RECs)

According to Adetula et al. (2016), this category should include various activities, events and projects to connect stakeholders, and must seek ways to creatively harness the involvement of different community groups, members or stakeholders in activities that can connect them to other people from Uganda, Rwanda, the DRC – even international tourists. Various economic activities can serve as a platform to this end, e.g. arts and crafts businesses, trade skills, bee-keeping, hotels and travel businesses, among others. This kind of economic integration increases friendships among these border communities, leading to the creation of conflict-resolution roles and peace-support operations, thereby helping to sustain peace and reduce conflict within these areas of the Virunga Park.

Forming a transboundary protected area (TBPA) network

To create a network beyond the political boundaries of multiple countries, allowing free movement of species, there must be a single management plan with shared objectives that span all boundaries. Forming this network will involve certain operational steps, such as: (i) Identify key stakeholders from all three countries; (ii) Conduct an initial scoping exercise to identify key natural resource issues; (iii) Identify relevant agencies, landowners and community members; and (iv) Adjust management practices, such as staff exchanges, etc.

However, McNeely (2003) states that most governments do not recognize that protecting biodiversity is ‘a common concern of humankind’ and a crucial part of the development process. This calls for the establishment of protected areas to conserve biodiversity, while promoting environmentally sound development around these areas and, in so doing, directly complementing the World Heritage Convention.

Creating a regional and international security section

Verweijen and Marijnen (2016) indicate that a security section must attract the attention of international donors and national authorities, and work closely with regional organizations and international financial institutions to support countries emerging from conflict. Its key functions include mobilizing relevant actors to develop integrated strategies for post-conflict peace-building and recovery.

However, Braack et al. (2006) argue that although local, regional and international agreements play a pivotal role in facilitating transnational protected area peace processes, many international conventions, treaties and other legal instruments have not prevented armed conflicts such as Mai-Mai, M23, etc. Poaching and the killing of gamekeepers has continued until 2018, despite the signing of various global and regional treaties.

Methodology

This study was both qualitative and quantitative in nature, and a descriptive research design was applied to generate answers to research questions. Survey design is concerned with describing, recording, analysing and reporting conditions that exist or existed. The descriptive design was appropriate for this study, since the researcher was able to obtain information from a large group of people, which was used to explain how best they could effectively manage and reduce armed conflicts in Virunga, identify possible challenges and offer practical solutions to effectively bring peace and stability.

Data collection

Primary data was collected from the field using the interviewing method. Self-administered questionnaires, paper and face-to-face surveys were also used to solicit information from all categories of respondents, especially those in rural communities, wardens, game-rangers, site managers, security personnel, tourists and international community representatives.

Sample size

Table 1 shows the categories of key informants who took part in a focus interview and who provided valid information concerning this transnational park.

Table 1. Key stakeholders of Virunga Park from the three countries
Full size table

Data processing and analysis

This is the organization, interpretation and presentation of collected data (Oso and Onen, 2005) in statistical tabulation format for easy storage and access for future use. The bottom-up approaches of participatory rural appraisals (PRAs), environmental impact assessments (EIAs), peace, conflict impact assessment (PCIA) approaches/techniques and the sustainable tourism checklist (SWHTC) were applied to obtain useful information such as supportive decision-making and valid interpretation, plus conclusions.

Peace conflict impact assessment (PCIA) approach

We used the PCIA to do the mapping of the conflict and armed group positions in the Virunga area. A joint security working group was formed to coordinate all the security agencies from the three neighbouring states sharing the Virunga park (see Table 2).

Table 2. Joint security working group between three states
Full size table

The data in Table 2 show that a joint security working group was formed among the three states, each contributing personnel from different security agencies. The DRC contributed the largest number of police officers (15), followed by Uganda (10) and lastly Rwanda (5).

The DRC has the largest share due to the fact that a large number of rebel groups have their bases there, resulting in frequent violence and armed conflict. This is in contrast to Rwanda and Uganda, where their security forces have made efforts to expel the rebels from their side, resulting in a limited police contribution towards this joint security working group.

Through their continued security intelligence network, Uganda and Rwanda have been able to secure relative peace in their Virunga transnational side compared to their counterpart the DRC, which has become a safe haven for rebel groups, disrupting peace and security for tourism and the communities around the Virunga area. The knock-on effects have been felt in the neighbouring states, where many refugees have arrived from the DRC while fleeing towards Uganda and Rwanda.

As a result of the continued combined efforts of all three neighbouring states sharing a border with the Virunga transnational park, and the support of international development partners such as the UN and other international agencies, there has been a tremendous improvement in peace and security. The significant community transformation in terms of economic activities and tourism is a testament to their outstanding work to ensure that peace prevails in this area.

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA)

It was discovered during the field research that over four million people live around the Virunga transboundary protected area (TBPA) – a concerted effort is therefore required to help these communities that have been adversely affected by the armed rebel groups. A number of projects, including rehabilitation, community mapping, problem identification, analysis and ranking, have been carried out.

Key community stakeholders were identified and interviewed to ascertain the nature of the problems. A number of approaches have been employed and projects designed to make sure that all the communities around the Virunga area live a better life.

Of the 300+ locals interviewed about their economic status, 180 of them reported that they could not afford the basic necessities of life, such as going to health centres for medication and getting three meals a day; many lived in poor grass-thatched houses and their children could not go to school. Furthermore, the researcher discovered that these people were very mobile, refugees looking for survival, and therefore incoming-generating activities had to be deployed to make these communities active and start earning a living for their families to survive.

The international development partners were lobbied for support to extend small income-generating activities to these local people around the Virunga area, as a way to improve their incomes and lift themselves out of abject poverty.

Training in local income-generating activities

Almost 700 local people have been trained in different vocational and life skills activities within the communities neighbouring the Virunga TBPA – this local initiative has substantially improved the lives of the poor communities, who are now able to earn money by selling their products and even offering services like transport, creating a mutually beneficial co-existence between the local community and the tourists who come to visit this park (Table 3).

Table 3. Number of locals trained in income-generating activities in the Virunga TBPA
Full size table

Using this bottom-up approach of including the local communities in economic development activities has had a positive impact socially, as it has also reduced the number of unemployed youth who were joining rebel groups as a means of survival.

Environmental impact assessment (EIA)

The researcher used EIA as another approach to clearly identify the value of all the economic activities and projects in and around the Virunga area. A number of parameters and benchmarks were applied to various projects, such as mining and deforestation activities, which are undertaken by both local and international companies. These projects impact the existence of flora and fauna in the park – wildlife migration, death and poaching for ivory and meat were rampant, according to the interviews carried out.

As shown in Table 4, it was discovered that a number of negative environmental activities were being carried out by different communities staying near this park. Charcoal burning and large-scale tree felling made up the largest share, with 2 and 32 cases respectively, with poaching contributing 15 of the cases discovered by the researcher.

Table 4. Negative environmental practices in the Virunga area
Full size table

It was also discovered during the field research that mining activities were being carried out within the park (14 registered cases), which had an adverse effects on nearby wildlife. Rebel groups also used this park as their base, and have inflicted a great deal of environmental damage on this natural entity.

Interpretations, the way forward and conclusions

Sustainable transnational collaboration between the three states sharing the Virunga National Park brings great economic, political, social and cultural benefits, especially in the tourism sector. The rare mountain gorillas are mostly confined to this park, and this can lead to an increase in revenues for all states of this region.

The data obtained from the field research show that the communities around this transnational park were not aware of the multitude of opportunities available to them once this natural resource began to be well maintained by the key stakeholders. The first to benefit from this improvement are the local people; however, further sensitization campaigns need to be undertaken in order to promote and safeguard this resource.

The data shows a certain laxity in promoting peace and security – some member states do not respond quickly enough when tourists and local communities are terrorized by rebels, creating large movements of refugees to more peaceful neighbouring states. This must be addressed in a collective manner to eliminate all the armed rebel groups from the park.

It was also observed that further efforts were needed to attract more potential international and regional development partners to help in promoting the park. Additional funds are needed to attract tourists and to create more income-generating projects with the local communities, as a way of including them in the development of the area.

Investment in culture and creativity, cultural heritage values and identity must be encouraged among the local people. Locals should be involved in businesses such as arts and crafts, fashion design using local fabrics, transport, foods, etc. All these activities attract more tourists to the park, thereby increasing the incomes of the marginalized and vulnerable poor communities in the surrounding area.

At a regional level, member states sharing this heritage must think of advanced regional infrastructural developments, such as a network of roads across the three states, to facilitate the movement of tourists across all border points, and a unified system of visa-free, standard hotels and personnel to deal with customers in a more organized way.

Having a uniform immigration system within the three member states to free up tourist travel across the whole park can be achieved through the states participating in a roundtable discussion. There is the potential to increase foreign exchange earnings, but this can only be achieved when a steering committee is put in place to coordinate this work efficiently and effectively.

Applying practical solutions to preserve and promote African heritage is the best option for all Africans to adopt if we are to achieve middle-income status.

Ethical considerations

This research involved the covert observation of individuals, especially in rebel-controlled areas, where intelligence data had to be kept secret.

The research involved people giving their personal opinions about other groups in the region. The researcher had to be careful to keep these views confidential in order to avoid conflict within the communities.

The research also necessitated the use of local resources, such as plants and other community facilities. This meant that the researcher had to be very flexible and lenient with local people in order to obtain all the required information.

The research involved local communities in capacity-building activities, trainings and the design of community-based projects. Given that the communities were made up of ethnic groups with a history of conflict and violence between themselves, the researcher used persuasive, probing techniques and peaceful methods in order to avoid further clashes.

There was a general feeling of insecurity in some places, with many interviewees very reluctant to answer questions; some withheld information for fear of being reprimanded. All of these issues had to be handled in a sensitive and ethical way in order to avoid any misconceptions among the local people.