Abstract
The risk of human extinction posed by the Anthropocene is a consequence of the predatory features of neoliberal capitalism, characterized by the constant production of goods irrespective of the real needs of society, just for the sake of the accumulation of capital, a fact that provokes consumerism and the squandering of produce, food and all kinds of agricultural and industrial outputs. Thus, the current mode of production must be changed if we don’t want to run the risk of extinction. Nevertheless, a world revolution of the type that Communists attempted during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries does not seem to be a viable way out of this crisis. The type of Great Transition (Raskin 2002) proposed by the Global Scenario Group could be a solution, but such a transformation requires time, the scarcity of which is not exactly any help, unless the 2020/21 pandemic triggers all nations to support the international cooperation needed to transform capitalism at world level, a scenario that does not loom large on the horizon. Therefore, a reform of the capitalist system to carry out as a minimum the SDGs of the UN 2030 Agenda is necessary and unavoidable if sustainable development is to be implemented. The latter has been the best alternative for restructuring capitalism since the end of the 1980s, but unfortunately the predominance of the neoliberal paradigm has obstructed the reformist agenda. In the following pages I will outline the historical difficulties and problems of sustainable development since its origins, with the aim of demonstrating that the contradictions that exist between a circular economy and a linear one are real and deserve attention and study. To achieve that goal, I will review the proposals made at the end of the twentieth century concerning human and sustainable development, the UN proposals of Agenda 2030, and certain normative intentions to change the model – such as the cultural and community development intentions expressed by the constitutions of Ecuador and Bolivia – and compare all these cases with historical examples of failed and collapsed societies of the past and with successful experiments of sustainable systems described by well-known researchers like the US social scientist Jared Diamond. In short, it is possible to say that sustainability refers to the conservation of Earth ecosystems, given its cyclical nature, and concerns the maintenance of balance in the survival of any species, hence it has a close relationship with biodiversity in the field of natural sciences. However, it also relates to social and environmental sciences, since this field of knowledge seeks to sustain human actions over time without exhausting resources or harming the environment, which implies the ability of a society to make responsible use of such resources without exceeding the carrying capacity of the planet or putting them at risk for future generations. Sustainability refers to the ability to remain, to durability, resilience and endurance, and to last over time, whereas sustainable development is the process by which the balance between the socio-political, ecological and economic factors essential to guide individual actions and public policies is achieved in order to satisfy human needs.
Economics is not a science that we can apply universally like chemistry. Economics is not even a general science of human society, such as anthropology, which attempts to study all forms of culture. The data of economics come mainly from accounting and bookkeeping because the models of economics apply mainly in the function of accountants and bookkeepers. Instead of saying that every society has an economic base, we should say that every culture has an ecological context. The general science of humanity’s interaction with the Earth and other living systems is ecology as bionomics, not economics. Culture is the overall survival strategy for Homo sapiens, its ecological niche. Economic society is a special form of culture.
Richards (2017: 25)
Following the exponential increase in the global production and consumption of fossil fuels from 1800 onwards and especially since the accelerated global industrialization after World War II, a ‘silent transition’ in geological time has occurred, which is why Crutzen (2002) announced that “we are now in the Anthropocene”. The impact of this new social construction of reality is not yet reflected in most publications in the social sciences, political science, international relations or security, peace, environment and development studies. It is not yet well understood in the global political discourse, which fails to recognize that now “we are the threat”, and that we are members of the human species that has for the first time directly interfered in the Earth System.
Brauch (2016: 29)
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Notes
- 1.
“It’s funny how the economy is about to collapse because people are only buying what they need.” Tale circulating in the social media during the confinement of the coronavirus pandemic.
- 2.
The term ‘prospective’, of French origin (Gaston Berger, Michel Godet), is defined as the science that studies social evolution, thereby making it possible to forecast the future. Gaston Berger founded the journal Prospective in 1957, while Michel Godet’s website, “La Prospective” urges people to think and act differently; see at: en.laprospective.fr.
- 3.
Goal 8 concerns growth and refers to the promotion of a “sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all”.
- 4.
The occurrence of the mass extinctions is evident from the geological history of the planet, which is measured in millions of years. The first, caused by huge glaciation, took place about 440 million years ago, and the second was the result of another glaciation that occurred at the end of the Devonian period, about 300 million years ago. The third mass extinction, which occurred about 255 million years ago at the end of the Permian period, was provoked by enormous volcanic eruptions. The fourth mass extinction resulted from a ‘comet shower’ at the end of the Triassic period. As for the fifth mass extinction, palaeontologists attribute it to the impact of a meteorite that caused climate change of such magnitude that it killed the dinosaurs 65 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period.
- 5.
SDG 5 refers to gender issues and aims to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
- 6.
Bear in mind here SDG 16 on the issue of good governance, which establishes the intention to: “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies, for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”.
- 7.
The concept of development without qualifiers was always understood to be the rough equivalent of economic growth, industrialization, trade and GDP increases, and modernization in general terms (Rostow 1962). In the European, Marxist or socialist tradition (Marx 2010) the concept of development is not reduced to its economic dimension because a permanent preoccupation with social welfare – such as improving education, health and other services provided by the State – exists in the socialist movement, but the concept continues to be mainly evolutionary and linear, which is at variance with the idea of sustainability as a systemic form comparable to the way that natural ecosystems function, which are cyclical. Thus, the concept of a circular economy (EU 2020; Raworth 2017; Esposito et al. 2018) that is not linear emerged as an approach that is complementary to that of sustainable development. Obviously, the idea of a type of development that involves both the classic linear economic development and the non-linear ecologist policy proposal that asserts that the environment must not be changed by human agency and therefore needs to be protected and preserved is contradictory. Therefore, a sustainable approach that does not imply any ‘development’ (and could even adhere to policies of degrowth), and that entails the conservation of natural ecosystems – as the Club of Rome (1972) and the Brundtland Report (1987) have both suggested – pose a quite difficult predicament. But that is precisely the kind of dilemma which needs be solved in the foreseeable future.
- 8.
The book Development on a Human Scale: An Option for the Future by Manfred Max Neef, Antonio Elizalde and Martin Hopenhayn is the source of the concept of human development introduced by the UNDP in its reports at the beginning of the 1990s. This seminal masterwork was the result of multiple research projects, reflections and discussions during seminars carried out in Brazil, Chile and Sweden which brought together Latin American scholars from different latitudes and disciplines, among them Hugo Zemelman (Argentina); Jesús Martínez (Colombia); Jorge Dandler (Bolivia); Jorge Jatobá (Brazil); Felipe Herrera (Chile); Rocío Grediaga (Mexico); Franz Hinkelammert (Costa Rica); Manfred Max Neef, Luis Weinstein, Martin Hopenhayn, and Antonio Elizalde (Chile); and the Swedish scholar Sven Hamrell, Director of the sponsoring entity, the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation of Sweden.
- 9.
The Stages of Economic Growth (Rostow 1962) is the most important book with regard to this topic. As for the concept of development in general terms, it is well-known that Marxism postulated the historical (and linear) progressive transit of the slave and feudal modes of production to capitalism. The latter is a stage forcibly previous to socialism and communism, which – according to historical materialism – are going to be the next stages in the evolution of the economic infrastructure of society. Thus promoting the development from backward agrarian structures to modern capitalist forms of production is a positive task for communist parties, since it implies the enlargement of working classes, according to Marx in his classic book, Das Kapital (1867). Other authors, such as the Brazilians Cardoso (1969) and Enzo Faletto, who proposed the Theory of Dependence that was very influential in Latin America, are also among the pioneers of this change in thinking, although Cardoso, who was elected President of Brazil in the 1990s, could not do much to change the social inequalities and lack of human development in Brazil. President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva and the Workers Party made a more successful attempt to improve social and human development and diminish inequalities in Brazil, but the reaction of the conservative establishment was to promote a legalfare that promoted the ‘technical’ coup d’état that impeached President Dilma Roussef in 2016 and placed former President Lula in jail, preventing him from running for office in 2018, a fact that allowed the far-right populist Jair Bolsonaro to became President in 2019, stopping the process of human scale development in Brazil.
- 10.
As was the case – to a certain extent – with the countries of the Soviet Bloc before the fall of the Berlin Wall and present-day North Korea, since they pretended to have no links with the capitalist world.
- 11.
The fact that Switzerland’s political system embraces direct democracy based on referendums demonstrates that the deepening or ‘radicalization’ of democracy is perfectly feasible.
- 12.
The scale of needs is described as a five-level pyramid. Higher needs are only met when lower needs have been met, such as the need to breathe, hydrate, feed, sleep (rest), eliminate bodily waste, avoid pain, maintain body temperature, etc. In addition, there are security and protection needs (physical security, health, work, housing); social needs derived from the relationship function (friendship, partner, colleagues and family), social acceptance and esteem (recognition); and the need for personal self-realization. Although inspired by Maslow’s works, the Chilean social scientists Neef et al. (1986) criticize the hierarchization of his paradigm of human development, according to which needs are few, finite, classifiable and universal. They propose instead a system of nine needs with four forms of realization: subsistence, protection, affection, understanding, participation, creation, recreation, identity and freedom, through being, having, doing and relating. They also assert that needs and satisfiers (the means to satisfy needs) vary according to person and culture. However, Spanish translations of Maslow’s works, such as Visiones de Futuro and La Persona Autorrealizada, published by Kairos Editorial in Barcelona, for sure influenced Neef et al.
- 13.
This type of governance structure could be considered tantamount to the autonomous regions or Länder in developed countries like Spain and Germany. Certainly the latter can be a source of comparison and inspiration.
- 14.
For instance, an artificial conservationist measure could be the endeavour to maintain corn crops in coastal communities when artisanal fishing projects should be promoted; but in another instance a very different situation might result from the purchase of imported corn in highland communities if it contributes to the destruction of traditional ways of life that are based on maize production that is additionally an important component of food security.
- 15.
For example, quinoa is a nutritious food highly popular among the indigenous populations of the South American highlands, especially in Peru and Bolivia, and is now being introduced in Central American countries.
- 16.
Recall this the author of Gaia Theory, which regards the planet as a living entity and highlights the difference between ‘biocentrism’ (focused on life) and ‘anthropocentrism’ (focused on man). For Gudynas, the difference between the two constitutions is that “the texts diverge radically. In the Bolivian Constitution the industrialization of natural resources is a goal, while in the Ecuadorian case Nature is presented for the first time as a subject with rights. Despite its positive aspects in other fields, the Bolivian text ends up reproducing the attachment of modernity to progress, while the Ecuadorian option allows a rupture with that perspective” (Gudynas 2017: 141).
- 17.
“Development is the new name of peace”, said Paul VI in his encyclical Populorum Progressio, which deals with the theme of the integral development of human beings and proposes solidarity development. The importance of solidarity action is presented by the Pope as “the passage from less human conditions of life to more human conditions of life”, which means not only an improvement in living conditions (education, health, housing, work) but also the promotion of spiritual values, such as respect for the dignity of others. Regarding solidarity development, it is considered that people’s “obligations are rooted in human and supernatural fraternity and are presented under a triple aspect: duty of solidarity, in the aid that rich nations must provide to developing countries; duty of social justice, straightening defective business relationships between strong and weak peoples; duty of universal charity, for the promotion of a more humane world for all, where all have to give and receive, without the progress of the one being an obstacle for the development of the others.” Development, then, responds to a demand for justice on a global scale and, understood in this way, should guarantee peace on the entire planet, which is why it is said to be “the new name of peace” (Pope Paul VI 1967).
- 18.
Galtung (1981) is a pioneer of peace research and speaks of an important difference between positive peace and negative peace. The first is a consequence of development, of the full satisfaction of human needs and, in short, of the absence of structural violence. In that sense, peace is closely related to sustainable development because it ends with structural violence. Negative peace, on the other hand, concerns geopolitics and realpolitik and refers solely to the absence of inter-state wars or internal armed conflicts.
- 19.
Paul Raskin and the Global Scenario Group (GSG) are convinced that a new paradigm and a great planetary transition to a different model of development based on what indigenous peoples have called sumak kawsay or buen vivir (good living) is possible, but in that case it will be necessary to go beyond policy reform scenarios such as the SDGs and the UN 2030 Agenda. The GSG argues that: “Policy Reform is the realm of necessity – it seeks to minimize environmental and social disruption, while the quality of life remains unexamined. The new sustainability paradigm transcends reform to ask anew the question that Socrates posed long ago: how shall we live? This is the Great Transitions path, the realm of desirability. The new paradigm would revise the concept of progress. Much of human history was dominated by the struggle for survival under harsh and meagre conditions. Only in the long journey from tool-making to modern technology did human want gradually give way to plenty. Progress meant solving the economic problem of scarcity. Now that problem has been – or rather, could be – solved. The precondition for a new paradigm is the historic possibility of a post-scarcity world where all enjoy a decent standard of living. On that foundation, the quest for material things can abate. The vision of a better life can turn to non-material dimensions of fulfilment – the quality of life, the quality of human solidarity and the quality of the Earth. With Keynes (1972), we can dream of a time when ‘we shall once more value ends above means and prefer the good to the useful’” (Raskin 2002: 41).
- 20.
Trump wanted to obtain from Mexico the “Third Secure Country” status foresee by the UN Convention for Refugees of 1951 but Mexico refused. In July 2019 a weak and submissive Guatemalan President started negotiations with the White House towards the same end but was stopped by the Guatemalan Constitutional Court. Trump wrathfully threatened in a Tweet to impose tariffs on Guatemalan migrant worker remittances, which amount to 11.2% of the country’s GDP (US $10,000 billion annually).
- 21.
For instance, in the case of Guatemala, the US $10,000 billion of remittances sent annually by migrant workers in the US are not only more than Guatemala’s GDP of 10%, but also exceed the 9.2% fiscal charge of 2018, which is so low because rich people hire lawyers who are experts in tax evasion. Thanks to the control that they exert on parliaments through corruption, it is extremely difficult for governments to make tax reforms.
- 22.
Ultimately, the whole problem of illegal drug trafficking is related to the undue intervention of states in the sphere of personal freedom when deciding to prohibit the consumption of certain substances (narcotics) because they are harmful to health on account of their addictive effects. The reason why other substances with pernicious and addictive effects (from alcohol to tobacco and even salt and sugar since diabetes and high blood pressure are endemic diseases) are not equally forbidden has more to do with the interests of global agribusiness than human health. Furthermore, if everything that has harmful effects on social welfare and human health were to be subject to prohibition, the production, sale and ‘consumption’ of small weapons rather than narcotics should be in first place, because although drugs do harm individual health, they are not designed to be used to hurt or kill other people.
- 23.
There is a general consensus that the illegal US invasion of Iraq in 2003 that led to the dismantling of Saddam Hussein’s army (composed mainly of Sunni officers and troops) contributed decisively to the emergence of terrorism in that country, especially when the Shia majority won the elections and installed a Shia government in Baghdad. It also seems evident that the engagement of certain Western countries in policies addressed at overthrowing the Syrian dictator Bashar el Assad has worsened the situation rather than improving it – as happened in Libya when Gaddafi was overthrown. Westerners also tend to forget the vulnerability of the entire Middle East region to climate change. The historic region of Mesopotamia, corresponding to large areas of modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey and Syria, is similar to Egypt because both rely heavily on rivers – the Nile and the two great rivers that descend from Turkish Anatolia, the Tigris and the Euphrates – therefore the increase in droughts and desertification is also a cause of violence and migratory flows.
- 24.
Although Diamond refers positively to the Dominican Republic’s policy of forest conservation due to the establishment of ecological reserves and national parks (owing to environmental figures and organizations that had the support of the dictator Joaquin Balaguer), it is interesting to quote what he wrote about the pernicious effects of consumerism (the human impact per capita or individual ecological footprint) on the generation of waste pollution (garbage), because the same phenomenon occurs in the rest of Latin America. Naturally, this includes Guatemala and the Central American countries: “More serious than the demographic growth of the country is the rapid increase in human impact per capita (with this concept … I mean the average consumption of resources and waste production per person … The overall impact of a society is equal to the per capita impact multiplied by the number of inhabitants). The overseas trips of the Dominicans, the visits made to the country by tourists and television, make the population fully aware of the higher standard of living in Puerto Rico and the United States. Everywhere there are billboards advertising consumer goods, and at all the important junctions in the cities I saw street vendors selling mobile phones and compact discs. The country is giving itself more and more to a consumption that at present is not supported by the economy or the resources of the Dominican Republic itself, and that depends in part on the income that Dominicans who work abroad send to their homes. All those people who buy huge quantities of consumer goods are, of course, generating huge amounts of waste that collapse the municipal waste disposal networks. You can see how garbage accumulates in streams, along roads, on city streets and in the countryside. A Dominican told me: ‘Here the apocalypse will not take the form of an earthquake or a hurricane, but the one that the world has been buried by garbage’” (Diamond 2007: 459).
- 25.
The conservationist policies applied by Japanese rulers to the country’s forests and national resources can be compared with the fact that in spite of being the world’s third-largest economy (after the US and China), Japan remains a very conservative country with an almost ‘zero growth’ economy that, from the perspective of reductionist neoliberal ‘mainstream economics’, could have been regarded as an economic crisis. However, not only is there no such crisis, but Japan’s situation demonstrates that economic growth is not really needed to make an economy both sustainable and in harmony with ecosystems. Japan’s average rate of economic growth is actually only 1.7%, according to the World Bank, and since 1992 it has been very low (i.e. less than 1%) or between 1% and 2% (except for the year 2000, when it was 2.8%), excluding the years of Wall Street’s financial crisis when the country had red numbers (minus 5.4% in 2008 and minus 0.1% in 2009) and very low ones afterwards (an average of less than 1%).
- 26.
For example, natural biogeochemical cycles concern the movement of elements (nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, calcium, sodium, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, carbon etc.) between living beings and the environment (atmosphere, biomass and aquatic systems) through a series of production and decomposition processes. In the biosphere, as a living envelope of the Earth or global ecosystem, matter is limited, so recycling it is a key factor in the maintenance of life on the entire planet, otherwise nutrients would run out and life would disappear. Natural cycles are, therefore, circular phenomena, not progressive or linear. This occurs, for instance, when the carbon dioxide exhaled by animals or produced by decaying organic matter is absorbed by plants, which then produce oxygen by means of photosynthesis, and the cycle repeats, circularly, not progressively.
- 27.
There is already a ‘worldcentric’ cosmopolitan consciousness in global civil society but, unfortunately, this type of world citizenry that cares about the planet and has a cosmopolitan ideology is still a minority at world level. In my last chapter I will discuss some of the ideas of authors such as Jürgen Habermas, David Held, Daniele Archibugi, Ulrich Beck, Richard Falk, and Walter Mignolo on the kind of cosmopolitanism that the subtitle of this book advocates.
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Padilla, LA. (2021). Sustainable Development or Sustainable Systems?. In: Sustainable Development in the Anthropocene. The Anthropocene: Politik—Economics—Society—Science, vol 29. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80399-5_4
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