Abstract
Abnormalities of the external genitalia are documented in about 1:4500 infants. The aim of this chapter is to summarize the most frequent and most important male genitalia tract abnormalities as well as to review their possible medical and surgical approaches. The disorders of male sexual development (DSD) represent the most challenging clinical conditions. They include a wide spectrum of abnormalities ranging from a complete female phenotype to milder defects of androgenization. DSD molecular diagnosis is possible in no more than 20% of cases, and a limited number of patients arrive at a definitive diagnosis. The pathophysiology of milder defects such as isolated cryptorchidism, hypospadias, anorchia, and congenital penile curvature is even less known, although a combination of genetic and environmental underlying factor has been advocated. The presence of an experienced interdisciplinary team including endocrinologists, urologists, geneticists, and psychologists is crucial for the management of all congenital disorders of male genital tract and especially of DSD. In vast majority of cases, the newborn period after gender assignment represents the best period for the first surgical approach. However, the urologists play a crucial role during all lifespan by reviewing prior surgeries, by managing surgical complications, as well as by evaluating the possible need for future surgery. Pediatric endocrinologist is essential for allowing the development of sexual characteristics in line with individual sexual orientation.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Bertelloni S, Dati E, Baroncelli GI. Disorders of sex development: hormonal management in adolescence. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2008;24:339–46.
Hughes IA. Disorders of sex development: a new definition and classification. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;22:119–34.
Huhtaniemi I, Alevizaki M. Gonadotrophin resistance. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;20:561–76.
Pasterski V, Prentice P, Hughes IA. Impact of the consensus statement and the new DSD classification system. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;24:187–95.
Hughes IA, Houk C, Ahmed SF, Lee PA, Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society/European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology Consensus Group. Consensus statement on management of intersex disorders. J Pediatr Urol. 2006;2:148–62.
Bose HS, Sugawara T, Strauss JF 3rd, Miller WL. The pathophysiology and genetics of congenital lipoid adrenal hyperplasia. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1870–8.
Hughes IA, Davies JD, Bunch TI, Pasterski V, Mastroyannopoulou K, MacDougall J. Androgen insensitivity syndrome. Lancet. 2012;380:1419–28.
Nowakowski H, Lenz W. Genetic aspects in male hypogonadism. Recent Prog Horm Res. 1961;17:53–95.
DiSandro M, Merke DP, Rink RC. Review of current surgical techniques and medical management considerations in the treatment of pediatric patients with disorders of sex development. Horm Metab Res. 2015;47:321–8.
Diamond M, Beh HG. Changes in the management of children with intersex conditions. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2008;4:4–5.
Bertelloni S, Dati E, Baroncelli GI. Disorders of sex development: hormonal management in adolescence. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2008;24:339–46.
Fisher AD, Ristori J, Fanni E, Castellini G, Forti G, Maggi M. Gender identity, gender assignment and reassignment in individuals with disorders of sex development: a major of dilemma. J Endocrinol Investig. 2016;39:1207–24.
Maggi M, Buvat J. Standard operating procedures: pubertas tarda/delayed puberty—male. J Sex Med. 2013;10:285–93.
Salonia A, Rastrelli G, Hackett G, Seminara SB, Huhtaniemi IT, Rey RA, Hellstrom WJG, Palmert MR, Corona G, Dohle GR, Khera M, Chan YM, Maggi M. Paediatric and adult-onset male hypogonadism. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2019;5:38.
Corona G, Sforza A, Maggi M. Testosterone replacement therapy: long-term safety and efficacy. World J Mens Health. 2017;35:65–76.
Corona G, Rastrelli G, Reisman Y, Sforza A, Maggi M. The safety of available treatments of male hypogonadism in organic and functional hypogonadism. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2018;17:277–92.
Giagulli VA, Triggiani V, Carbone MD, Corona G, Tafaro E, Licchelli B, Guastamacchia E. The role of long-acting parenteral testosterone undecanoate compound in the induction of secondary sexual characteristics in males with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. J Sex Med. 2011;8:3471–8.
Odame I, Donaldson MD, Wallace AM, Cochran W, Smith PJ. Early diagnosis and management of 5a-reductase deficiency. Arch Dis Child. 1992;67:720–3.
Grino PB, Isidro-Gutierrez RF, Griffin JE, Wilson JD. Androgen resistance associated with a qualitative abnormality of the androgen receptor and responsive to high dose androgen therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1989;68:578–84.
Weidemann W, Peters B, Romalo G, Spindler KD, Schweikert HU. Response to androgen treatment in a patient with partial androgen insensitivity and a mutation in the deoxyribonucleic acid-binding domain of the androgen receptor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83:1173–6.
Springer A, Krois W, Horcher E. Trends in hypospadias surgery: results of a worldwide survey. Eur Urol. 2011;60:1184–9.
Pena A. Total urogenital mobilization: an easier way to repair cloacas. J Pediatr Surg. 1997;32:267–8.
Bergbrant S, Omling E, Björk J, Hagander L. Cryptorchidism in Sweden: a nationwide study of prevalence, operative management, and complications. J Pediatr. 2018;194:197–203.e6.
Lee PA, Houk CP. Cryptorchidism. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2013;20:210–6.
Ferlin A, Zuccarello D, Zuccarello B, Chirico MR, Zanon GF, Foresta C. Genetic alterations associated with cryptorchidism. JAMA. 2008;300:2271–6.
Qin XY, Kojima Y, Mizuno K, Ueoka K, Massart F, Spinelli C, Zaha H, Okura M, Yoshinaga J, Yonemoto J, Kohri K, Hayashi Y, Ogata T, Sone H. Association of variants in genes involved in environmental chemical metabolism and risk of cryptorchidism and hypospadias. J Hum Genet. 2012;57:434–41.
Cortes D, Holt R, de Knegt VE. Hormonal aspects of the pathogenesis and treatment of cryptorchidism. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2016;26:409–17.
Kollin C, Stukenborg JB, Nurmio M, Sundqvist E, Gustafsson T, Söder O, Toppari J, Nordenskjöld A, Ritzén EM. Boys with undescended testes: endocrine, volumetric and morphometric studies on testicular function before and after orchidopexy at nine months or three years of age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97:4588–95.
Allin BSR, Dumann E, Fawkner-Corbett D, Kwok C, Skerritt C, Paediatric Surgery Trainees Research Network. Systematic review and meta-analysis comparing outcomes following orchidopexy for cryptorchidism before or after 1 year of age. BJS Open. 2018;2:1–12.
Bu Q, Pan Z, Jiang S, Wang A, Cheng H. The effectiveness of hCG and LHRH in boys with cryptorchidism: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Horm Metab Res. 2016;48:318–24.
Hadziselimovic F. Is hormonal treatment of congenital undescended testes justified? A debate. Sex Dev. 2019;13:3–10.
Chua ME, Mendoza JS, Gaston MJV, Luna SL Jr, Morales ML Jr. Hormonal therapy using gonadotropin releasing hormone for improvement of fertility index among children with cryptorchidism: a meta-analysis and systematic review. J Pediatr Surg. 2014;49:1659–67.
Hadziselimovic F. Successful treatment of unilateral cryptorchid boys risking infertility with LH-RH analogue. Int Braz J Urol. 2008;34:319–26.
van der Horst HJ, de Wall LL. Hypospadias, all there is to know. Eur J Pediatr. 2017;176:435–41.
Sagodi L, Kiss A, Kiss-Toth E, Barkai L. Prevalence an possible causes of hypospadias. Orv Hetil. 2014;155:978–85.
Skakkebaek NE, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Main KM. Testicular dysgenesis syndrome: an increasingly common developmental disorder with environmental aspects. Hum Reprod. 2001;16:972–8.
Riedmiller H, Androulakakis P, Beurton D, Kocvara R, Gerharz E, European Association of Urology. EAU guidelines on paediatric urology. Eur Urol. 2001;40:589–99.
Wright I, Cole E, Farrokhyar F, Pemberton J, Lorenzo AJ, Braga LH. Effect of preoperative hormonal stimulation on postoperative complication rates after proximal hypospadias repair: a systematic review. J Urol. 2013;190:652–9.
Rynja SP, de Jong TP, Bosch JL, de Kort LM. Functional, cosmetic and psychosexual results in adult men who underwent hypospadias correction in childhood. J Pediatr Urol. 2011;7:504–15.
Pirgon O, Dundar BN. Vanishing testes: a literature review. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2012;4:116–20.
Philibert P, Zenaty D, Lin L, Soskin S, Audran F, Léger J, Achermann JC, Sultan C. Mutational analysis of steroidogenic factor 1 (NR5a1) in 24 boys with bilateral anorchia: a French collaborative study. Hum Reprod. 2007;22:3255–61.
Sokolakis I, Hatzichristodoulou G. Current trends in the surgical treatment of congenital penile curvature. Int J Impot Res. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41443-019-0177-0. [Epub ahead of print].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Corona, G. et al. (2021). Medical and Surgical Treatment of Congenital Anomalies of Male Genital Tract. In: Foresta, C., Gianfrilli, D. (eds) Pediatric and Adolescent Andrology. Trends in Andrology and Sexual Medicine. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80015-4_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80015-4_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-80014-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-80015-4
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)