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A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Equal Participation in Rituals in a Festival Context

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Vindicatory Justice

Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 93))

Abstract

Although women’s participation in intangible cultural heritage has long been challenged by feminist groups in Spain, it is only in the past two decades that their claims have been taken up by government. In this article, we reflect on the application of the principle of equality to rituals in the festival context and argue that women’s demands to take part may be considered a vindication, a call for retribution of a historical offence: the exclusion of women from public and symbolic spaces of their community. We contend the symbolic efficacy of their actions, a transformative power that entails reparation both in the symbolic arena and in the social, political and legislative order. Rituals in festivals emerge as contexts where women might obtain compensation and reparation for the historical discrimination not amended in the judicial or legislative arena.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Cagide et al. (2019) and Montesinos (2019). The latter presents the results of a project led by Gabeiras Foundation and in which the authors took part, see Gabeiras Foundation (2019).

  2. 2.

    UNESCO (2015), Rostagnol (2015), Bullen and Pérez (2019) and Cagide et al. (2019).

  3. 3.

    Title II of the Law, article 3b states: “The principle of equality and non-discrimination. The traditional character of intangible manifestations of culture will in no way serve as a cover for actions which may constitute an infringement of the principle of gender equality”. The Plan only mentions the gender variable in order to emphasise the diversity of symbolic appropriations of heritage, and of women, in order to recommend that the media’s treatment of intangible culture should bear in mind “the representative nature of all social groups implicated in all social practices (the role of men and women, above all when they develop their activity behind the scenes…)”. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the Constitutional Law (3/2007 of 22 March for the effective equality of women and men) and especially some autonomous laws of equality refer to equality in the cultural and festive realm, references that have to a large extent been incorporated as a result of the conflicts we address in this article.

  4. 4.

    Bullen (1997, 2000), Heuzé (1999), Bullen and Egido (2003), Farapi (2009), Gisbert (2010), Lafita (2013) and Moral (2014).

  5. 5.

    Díez and Bullen (2012).

  6. 6.

    It is difficult to translate the culturally specific term fiesta. The English “festival” barely renders the social sense of the fiestas celebrated once a year in every town, village and neighbourhood of Spain. Within each fiesta there are one of more emblematic events or activities, parades or performances, which assume a ritual nature. We will refer to these as “festival rituals” or “rituals in the festival context”, but we will also use the Spanish term fiesta.

  7. 7.

    Bullen (2003), pp. 226–230.

  8. 8.

    Gisbert (2011).

  9. 9.

    Lévi-Strauss (1958), Sperber (1978) and Bourdieu (1998).

  10. 10.

    In order to understand the variety of forms that these rituals of reparation and composition might adopt, see the chapter of this volume by Ignasi Terradas, “Introduction: Understanding Vindicatory Systems” and also Terradas (2008, 2019).

  11. 11.

    International jurisprudence has repeatedly established that a sentence that declares a violation of human rights constitutes a form of reparation per se, a question that directly refers to the symbolic nature and effect of judicial resolutions. cf. Case of Las Dos Erres Massacre v. Guatemala, Sentence of 24 November 2009; the Gonzalez, Monreal and Monarrez (or the “Cotton Field”) v. Mexico Case, Sentence of 16 November 2009; the Dacosta Cadogan v. Barbados Case, Sentence of 24 September 2009; the Anzualdo Castro v. Peru Case, Sentence of 22 September 2009; and the Neira Alegría and others v. Peru Case, Sentence 19 September 1996.

  12. 12.

    For example, Hocart (1927), Gluckman (1954) or Gramsci (2011).

  13. 13.

    Gabeiras Foundation (2019).

  14. 14.

    Ortner and Whitehead (1981) and Gisbert (2010).

  15. 15.

    Bullen (1997) and Gisbert (2010, 2015).

  16. 16.

    Rubin (1975), Bullen (1997), Bourdieu (1998), Bullen and Egido (2003), Gisbert (2010, 2015) and Antuña (2017).

  17. 17.

    Bourdieu (1998).

  18. 18.

    Rubin (1975).

  19. 19.

    Bourdieu (1998).

  20. 20.

    Segato (2003).

  21. 21.

    Fernández (2005), p. 9.

  22. 22.

    Segato (2003), p. 119.

  23. 23.

    Sánchez (2003), Moreno and Kerexeta (2006), Moral (2014), Martínez (2015) and Antuña (2017). The Spanish Republic’s 1931 Constitution laid out the principle of equality of the sexes, allowed the development of the divorce law and introduced wide-reaching legislative advances in matters of equality between men and women. The Franco dictatorship (1939–1975) represented an enormous setback for the rights of women, relegated to the home, procreation and family care.

  24. 24.

    Gisbert (2010), Alcaraz (2014), Martínez (2015) and Domene (2015). In 1987, in Villena (Alicante), women who wanted to participate in the festival of Moors and Christians denounced as unconstitutional the festival’s statutes for stipulating the participation of “all male individuals”. Fearing a resolution favourable to women, the men decided to modify the statute and regulate the incorporation of women, with restrictions (Domene 2004, 2015) and the court effectively ruled the modification of the statute. Legal action subsequently taken in Alcoi (Alicante) and in the Bidasoa area (Basque Country) was additionally protected by article 14 of the Constitution: Spaniards are equal before the law, without discrimination on account of birth, race, sex, religion, opinion or any other personal or social condition or circumstance.

  25. 25.

    Boissevain (1992), Ariño and García (2006) and Alcaraz (2014).

  26. 26.

    Sánchez (2003) and Domene (2004).

  27. 27.

    The statute of the festival of Moors and Christians of Alcoi states that the participant should “represent the nature of the character” (Gisbert 2010).

  28. 28.

    Farapi (2009), Lafita (2013) and Montesinos (2019).

  29. 29.

    Farapi (2009) and Moral (2014).

  30. 30.

    Lafita (2013).

  31. 31.

    Domene (2004) and Gisbert (2010).

  32. 32.

    Moral (2014).

  33. 33.

    Tulles and ornaments hinder the ability to shoot in the battles of Moors and Christians; skirts and sashes can be uncomfortable when it comes to urinating during the long hours that the Tamborrada lasts; female garments offer less protection from the cold in the winter Caldereros festival; and complements like the boots and fans of the serving girls in the Alardes of the Bidasoa cause blisters and sores, affirming a popularly accepted relationship between the values of beauty and sacrifice.

  34. 34.

    Montesinos (2019).

  35. 35.

    Moral (2014).

  36. 36.

    For example, that of the Virgin Mary in the Mystery of Elx (Montesinos 2019), or the queen and her ladies-in-waiting in the Caldereros of Donostia/San Sebastián (Farapi 2009).

  37. 37.

    Bourdieu (1998).

  38. 38.

    In the cases analysed, this possibility is ridiculed, seen to be outrageous or treated as taboo: for example, the idea of a male cantinera in the Alardes or a boy Beautiful Easo in the children’s Tamborrada.

  39. 39.

    Alcaraz (2014).

  40. 40.

    García-Villegas (1993) and Segato (2003).

  41. 41.

    Bullen and Egido (2003), Farapi (2009) and Gisbert (2010).

  42. 42.

    Segato (2003) p. 121.

  43. 43.

    The tension linked to the birth of the State and the system of civil/penal positive Law is well known: the opposition or complementarity between Law and custom. As the polysemy of the concept of custom is beyond the reach of this chapter, see Terradas (2010), Gluckman (1956) or Malinowski (1926) for a definition of custom in the legal sense, and Assier-Andrieu (2001) for a critical update.

  44. 44.

    Terradas (2018) analyses the jurisprudence in questions of gender violence in Spain and the Constitutional Law 1/2004 of 28 December, on the Measures for Comprehensive Protection against Gender Violence.

  45. 45.

    Terradas (2018), Segato (2003) and Gabeiras Foundation (2019).

  46. 46.

    The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (United Nations General Assembly Resolution 34/180, New York, 18 December 1979, ratified by Spain in 1983) also emphasises this question: State Parties shall take all appropriate measures to modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women, with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customary and all other practices which are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women (article 5).

  47. 47.

    González-Requena (2009) p 30.

  48. 48.

    Bourdieu (1998) and Segato (2003).

  49. 49.

    Anderson (1983) and Gellner (1983).

  50. 50.

    González-Abrisketa (2013).

  51. 51.

    Rubin (1975) and Gisbert (2010).

  52. 52.

    Asensio and Iraola (2018).

  53. 53.

    In this sense, both K. Marx (Bensaïd 2007) and Thompson (1980) pointed out that legal customs were those that emerged among the popular classes, based on necessity and equity in order to survive; their legitimacy stemmed from communitarian consensus of their importance for peaceful coexistence, and for that reason they should not provoke any opposition. Customs established by force, by the imposition of a law or favouring certain privileged groups were considered “bad customs” or “unfair customs”, not established spontaneously through communitarian social life but through the abuse of power and protection of specific interests (González 1981). F. K. Savigny , however, argued that the customs of the governing upper classes should also be considered, and this had consequences in the thought of the historical school of the German Right, which emphasised the fundamental character of custom (“the spirit of the people”) in constructing the Law, and the recognition of the consuetudinary law of “peoples” in its ethnicist and romantic version (González 1981; Rodríguez 2011). Savigny’s thought and that of the German school influenced legal and anthropological thought in the Spanish state before and after the Franco dictatorship, and especially in the study of folklore and popular culture divested of its class component (Costa et al. 1902; Velasco 1990). Following Segato (2003) we stress that there is no continuity between “unfair” customs and the law, between the discriminatory moral and religious system and the legal system, between the status and privilege system and the contract system based in the principle of equality.

  54. 54.

    Segato (2003).

  55. 55.

    Lévi-Strauss (1958).

  56. 56.

    Sperber (1978).

  57. 57.

    Bourdieu (1998).

  58. 58.

    Mauss (1924).

  59. 59.

    Polanyi (1977).

  60. 60.

    The incorporation of women into the public and organisational part of rituals in the festival context suggests similarities with the arguments put forward by The Politics of Presence (Philips 1995) in regard to political or powerful positions. Here, too, women’s demands go beyond mere participation to achieve more ambitious goals in the modification of certain values and meanings of the festival. Nevertheless, the transformative potential of incorporating women into the festival is often reduced to the struggle over admission, forcing other wider-reaching objectives to be put on hold or sidelined (Lafita 2013).

  61. 61.

    Bourdieu (1998), Segato (2003) and Ortner and Whitehead (1981).

  62. 62.

    Marín (2000) and Saborido (2011).

  63. 63.

    Gisbert (2010) and Moreno and Kerexeta (2006).

  64. 64.

    In spite of the official nature of these institutions, the ombudsperson’s recommendations have been ignored in Alcoi and also in Irun and Hondarribia. This situation of exceptionality led the Valencian Síndic de Greuges to declare the Town Council of Alcoi “hostile” for turning a deaf ear to its recommendations (Gisbert 2010) and encouraged some collectives to resort to the legal route, often relying on legal arguments developed by ombudspersons.

  65. 65.

    For the summaries and analyses of jurisprudence concerning such conflicts—most surrounding the case of the Alardes—see Montesinos (2019).

  66. 66.

    Moreno and Kerexeta (2006).

  67. 67.

    Article 9.2 of the Constitution states: It is the responsibility of the public authorities to promote conditions ensuring that freedom and equality of individuals and of the groups to which they belong are real and effective, to remove the obstacles preventing or hindering their full enjoyment, and to facilitate the participation of all citizens in political, economic, cultural and social life.

  68. 68.

    The Alardes were then carried out by first asking for permission to march (according to the right to congregate) and then through municipal permission to hold an event in public (according to the Law of Public Events). See Burzaco (2006) and Montesinos (2019).

  69. 69.

    Lekuona (2006) and Asensio and Iraola (2018).

  70. 70.

    Montesinos (2019).

  71. 71.

    Segato (2003) and Montesinos (2015).

  72. 72.

    This has been demonstrated among others by Malinowski (1926), Gluckman (1954, 1956), Di Martino (1959, 1961) and Terradas (2008, 2019).

  73. 73.

    Segato (2016).

  74. 74.

    Along the lines of the proposals of restorative justice analysed by Riccardo Mazzola in the chapter of this volume “‘To Restore’ vs. ‘To Vindicate’: A Comparative Analysis”.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Doctorate School, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain

    Lidia Montesinos

  2. Faculty of Education, Philosophy and Anthropology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain

    Margaret Bullen

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  1. Lidia Montesinos
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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Social Anthropology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

    Raúl Márquez Porras

  2. Department of Legal Sciences ‘Cesare Beccaria’, Faculty of Law, University of Milan, Milan, Italy

    Riccardo Mazzola

  3. Department of Social Anthropology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

    Ignasi Terradas Saborit

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Montesinos, L., Bullen, M. (2022). A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Equal Participation in Rituals in a Festival Context. In: Márquez Porras, R., Mazzola, R., Terradas Saborit, I. (eds) Vindicatory Justice. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 93. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79595-5_16

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