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Influences and Influencers in Antarctic Affairs

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Who Saved Antarctica?

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Abstract

This chapter uses historiographic techniques and concepts of international regime formation to provide a theoretical explanation of how influencers and influences affected the events. Both had to work to achieve the shift from a convention to regulate Antarctic mineral resource activities, to an environmental protocol that prohibited them. It explains how pre-existing circumstances, coincidences and serendipitous events propelled change and overcame the ‘crisis of consensus’. It then assesses the roles of politicians, diplomats, scientists, environmentalists, the media and others who influenced the events. Their leadership is categorised as intellectual, entrepreneurial or structural. It suggests that no single factor explains what occurred. Importantly, it also suggests that the circumstances that eventuated were impossible to predict or orchestrate—a unique coming together of the people who were well placed, and motivated, to take advantages of the opportunities that arose. Behind all these factors were the norms of the Antarctic Treaty, including accommodation of differences over sovereignty, which allowed decisions to be made using the well-established consensus model. The restoration of consensus ensured protection of both the Antarctic environment and the integrity of the Antarctic Treaty itself.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Some historians call these factors contingence, conjuncture and accident. Marks, The Origins of the Modern World, 10–17.

  2. 2.

    This has also been called “pre-negotiation”. Hall, International Regime Formation and Leadership: The Origins of the Antarctic Treaty, 65–67 and 153.

  3. 3.

    October 1970, “Sixth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Brief for the Australian delegation” (NAA: B1387 1991/640 PART 3).

  4. 4.

    https://ats.aq/devAS/Parties?lang=e (accessed 15 March 2020).

  5. 5.

    The rapid growth in Treaty Parties between 1982 and 1988 is illustrated in Daniela Liggett et al., “Is It All Going South? Four Future Scenarios for Antarctica,” Polar Record 53, no. 5 (2017): 461–62. Antarctic Treaty, Report of the Twelfth Consultative Meeting, Canberra, 13–27 September 1983, 14–15, 122–23

  6. 6.

    In brief, Article IV protects the interests of states that maintain a territorial claim and those that do not, and allows cooperation to proceed unhindered by the differences of view. Watts, International Law and the Antarctic Treaty System, 126–36. Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, 57–58.

  7. 7.

    The term emerged in March 1978 during the CCAMLR negotiations. UK Head of Delegation Donald Logan remarked that the Parties seemed to be looking at a draft article on jurisdiction through bifocal glasses. The solution accepted was “non-claimants would interpret references to coastal state jurisdiction as applying solely to areas of undisputed national jurisdiction north of 60 degrees South and claimants would interpret such references as applying both to north and south of that latitude”. March 1978, Australian delegation report, Antarctic marine living resources (AAD: B13/197). The importance of bifocalism is examined in: Martin L Lee, “The 1959 Antarctic Treaty, the “Freezing and Bifocalism” Formula,” Australian International Law Journal (2000). Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol I, 406. Marcus Haward and Nicholas Cooper, “Australian Interests, Bifocalism, Bipartisanship, and the Antarctic Treaty System,” Polar Record 50, no. 1 (2014). R. Tucker Scully, “The Development of the Antarctic Treaty System,” in Science Diplomacy: Antarctica, Science, and the Governance of International Spaces, ed. Paul Arthur Berkman, and others (Smithsonian Institution, 2011), 31. James N. Barnes, “The Emerging Antarctic Living Resources Convention,” American Society of International Law Proceedings 73 (1979): 279–81.

  8. 8.

    For the sovereignty challenge posed by minerals, see Hambro, “Some Notes on the Future of the Antarctic Treaty Collaboration.” Roberts, “International Co-Operation for Antarctic Development: The Test for the Antarctic Treaty,” 111–13. Auburn, Antarctic Law and Politics, 109–10. Finn Sollie, “Jurisdictional Problems in Relation to Antarctic Mineral Resources in Political Perspective,” in Antarctic Resources Policy: Scientific, Legal and Political Issues, ed. Francisco Orrego Vicuña (Cambridge University Press, 1983), 317–35.

  9. 9.

    Christopher C Beeby, “The Antarctic Treaty System: Goals, Performance and Impact,” in The Antarctic Treatgy System in World Politics, ed. Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl and Willy Østreng (Macmillan/Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 1991), 7.

  10. 10.

    Stokke, “The Making of Norwegian Antarctic Policy,” 387–89.

  11. 11.

    21 January 1976, Memorandum AHC London “Antarctic Policy” (NAA: B1387 1996/864 PART 1). It was ventured that “it might be best for the United Kingdom to look upon itself as a non-claimant state”. Roberts, “International Co-Operation for Antarctic Development: The Test for the Antarctic Treaty,” 112.

  12. 12.

    26 April 1976, O.BA3430 “Antarctica—Paris preparatory meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 1).

  13. 13.

    12 January 1977, “Note for file” (NAA: B1387 1991/748).

  14. 14.

    Stokke, “Domestic Politics and ATS Change: Introductory Assessment,” 324. Rowland, “The Treaty Regime and the Politics of the Consultative Parties,” 21.

  15. 15.

    July 1976, Report of the Australian Delegation to the Special Preparatory Meeting of Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties on the Exploration and Exploitation of the Mineral Resources of Antarctica, Paris, 28 June–10 July 1976 (AAD: B13/197), 3–4

  16. 16.

    Keith Brennan, “Criteria for Access to the Resources of Antarctica: Alternatives, Procedure and Experience Applicable,” in Antarctic Resources Policy: Scientific, Legal and Political Issues, ed. Francisco Orrego Vicuña (Cambridge University Press, 1983), 224.

  17. 17.

    18 April 1977, draft by the Legal Adviser “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 4).

  18. 18.

    24 August 1981, BU7082 “Antarctica—Draft recommendation on mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 96/894).

  19. 19.

    14 April 1986, “Opening address by the Hon Barry O Jones” (NAA: B1387 1985/889 PART 2). Contrast this with Jones’ earlier view that if resource shortages made Antarctica attractive “it was time we looked for another planet”: 6 April 1983, “Antarctica should be a peace zone, says Jones” The Australian.

  20. 20.

    In 1986, New Zealand was disappointed that Australia put great weight on economic interests. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 186–87, 206 and 14.

  21. 21.

    Alternatively, New Zealand leadership on minerals was “self-interest”—a regime with favourable terms because it had no domestic oil reserves. Ibid., 114–19. In CCAMLR negotiations, Australia benefitted from vigorous French advocacy of sovereignty over islands in the CCAMLR area.

  22. 22.

    Robert Friedheim and Tsuneo Akaha, “Antarctic Resources and International Law: Japan, the United States, and the Future of Antarctica,” Ecology Law Quarterly 16, no. 1 (1989): 144–46.

  23. 23.

    Antarctic Treaty, Rules of Procedure of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting and the Committe for Environmental Protection (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2017). Consensus avoided the prospect of a claimant being outvoted and prevented from taking an action that it considered a sovereign right. In the Treaty’s early years, consensus prevented the claimants outvoting non-claimants.

  24. 24.

    Jackson, “Politics, Diplomacy and the Creation of Antarctic Consensus.”

  25. 25.

    US Congress Office of Technology Assessment, Polar Prospects: A Minerals Treaty for Antarctica (US Government Printing Office, 1989), 6.

  26. 26.

    “Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities”, Article 22.5. The same definition was adopted for the Council in Article 161.8(e) of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention. See http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf (accessed 3 February 2021).

  27. 27.

    Some authors suggest that unanimity is implied. See, for example: Myhre, The Antarctic Treaty System: Politics, Law, and Diplomacy, 42. M. J. Peterson, Managing the Frozen South: The Creation and Evolution of the Antarctic Treaty System (University of California Press, 1988), 93. Beck, The International Politics of Antarctica, 155.

  28. 28.

    Underdal, “One Question, Two Answers,” 25.

  29. 29.

    26 April 1991, “XI SCM (Session II)” (AWJ personal notes), 52.

  30. 30.

    Beeby, “The Antarctic Treaty System: Goals, Performance and Impact,” 13–15.

  31. 31.

    Consensus was also abandoned in the Protocol’s Article 25 requirement for “a majority of the Parties” to adopt a modification to the Protocol. This qualified majority ensures the Protocol would not suffer the same fate as CRAMRA. Francioni, “The Madrid Protocol on the Protection of the Antarctic Environment,” 69.

  32. 32.

    CRAMRA did not require consensus to open an area for prospecting.

  33. 33.

    John A. Heap, “The Political Case for the Minerals Convention,” in The Future of Antarctica: Exploitation Versus Preservation, ed. Grahame Cook (Manchester University Press, 1990), 45–46. Beeby, “The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Minerals and Its Future,” 56, 58. John Burgess, “Comprehensive Environmental Protection of the Antarctic: New Approaches for New Times,” in The Future of Antarctica: Exploitation Versus Preservation, ed. Grahame Cook (Manchester University Press, 1990), 63–64.

  34. 34.

    A counterargument was that the Vienna Convention prevented CRAMRA’s signatories supporting a mining ban as that would have defeated the convention’s purpose. That viewpoint was dismissed when all Parties to CRAMRA agreed to depart from it: Watts, International Law and the Antarctic Treaty System, 287. It has also been argued that an individual Party can drop support without contradicting the Vienna Convention: J. G. Podehl and D. R. Rothwell, “New Zealand and the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA): An Unhappy Divorce?” Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 22 (1992): 44–45.

  35. 35.

    “Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities”, Articles 29, 62.

  36. 36.

    The veto power was also held by others because of the requirement that at least 16 Parties participate in CRAMRA. At the time of Australia’s decision not to sign CRAMRA, to fulfil the prescribed formula the Convention also required participation by either of India or of China (as developing States). China signed.

  37. 37.

    See, for example: Elliott, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, 162, 71.

  38. 38.

    Chaturvedi, The Polar Regions, 141, 229.

  39. 39.

    Argentina’s sustained objection to an Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was another example.

  40. 40.

    Beeby, “The Antarctic Treaty System: Goals, Performance and Impact,” 18–19. Rolf Trolle Andersen, “Negotiating a New Regime: How CRAMRA Came into Existence,” in The Antarctic Treaty System in World Politics, ed. Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl and Willy Østreng (Macmillan/Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 1991), 108.

  41. 41.

    Kjell Magne Bondevik, “Foreword,” ibid., ed. Arnfinn Jorgensen-Dahl and Willy Ostreng, xxi.

  42. 42.

    Rolf Trolle Andersen, “Negotiating a New Regime: How CRAMRA Came into Existence,” ibid., ed. Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl and Willy Østreng, 95–96.

  43. 43.

    1 August 1986, Bob Beale “South Africa uses Antarctic Treaty to keep doors open” Sydney Morning Herald, 12.

  44. 44.

    Beeby, “The Antarctic Treaty System: Goals, Performance and Impact,” 4.

  45. 45.

    Joyner describes this as ‘political pragmatism’. Joyner, “Anglo-Argentine Rivalry after the Falklands/Malvinas War: Law, Geopolitics, and the Antarctic Connection,” 499–500.

  46. 46.

    Many authors have assessed the impact of the UN consideration of Antarctica: Tepper and Haward, “The Development of Malaysia’s Position on Antarctica: 1982 to 2004.” Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, 235–51. Haward and Mason, “Australia, the United Nations and the Question of Antarctica.”

  47. 47.

    The resilience of the ATS has been assessed in: Mel Weber, “The Strength to Continue: A Case Study Approach to Examining the Robustness of Polar Governance in the Era of Environmental and Energy Security” (PhD thesis, University of Tasmania, 2011).

  48. 48.

    Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol I, 288.

  49. 49.

    Bernard H. Oxman, “Antarctica and the New Law of the Sea,” Cornell International Law Journal 19 (1986). Morell, The Law of the Sea: An Historical Analysis of the 1982 Treaty and Its Rejection by the United States.

  50. 50.

    C. Wilfred Jenks, “An International Regime for Antarctica?” International Affairs 32, no. 4 (1956): 418.

  51. 51.

    Wolfrum suggests that mining was brought up at the Antarctic Treaty conference: Rüdiger Wolfrum, “The Exploitation of Antarctic Mineral Resources: Risks and Stakes,” in The Antarctic Environment and International Law, ed. Joe Verhoeven, Phillipe Sands and Maxwell Bruce (Graham &​ Trotman, 1992), 27.

  52. 52.

    Lewis M. Alexander and Lynne Carter Hanson, eds., Antarctic Politics and Marine Resources (University of Rhode Island, 1985), 18. Elliott, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, 108–09.

  53. 53.

    18 October 1972, ANT/17 “Antarctic resources of effects of mineral exploration: draft Recommendation submitted by the United Kingdom” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM7/wp/ATCM7_wp017_e.pdf (accessed 10 March 2020). John A. Heap, “The Treaty and the Protocol,” in Antarctica: The Environment and the Future, ed. G Mudge (International Academy of the Environment and International Peace Research Institute, 1992), 37.

  54. 54.

    Burgess, “Comprehensive Environmental Protection of the Antarctic: New Approaches for New Times,” 63.

  55. 55.

    Alexander and Hanson, Antarctic Politics and Marine Resources, 97.

  56. 56.

    Chaturvedi, The Polar Regions, 30–34.

  57. 57.

    R. A. Cook and F. J. Davey, “Hydrocarbon Exploration and Potential,” in The Antarctic Sector of the Pacific, ed. G P Glasby, Elsevier Oceanography Series (Elsevier, 1990), 182–85.

  58. 58.

    Martijn Wilder, Antarctica: An Economic History of the Last Continent (Department of Economic History, the University of Sydney, 1992), 57. Swan, Australia in the Antarctic: Interest, Activity and Endeavour, 347–48.

  59. 59.

    Adrian Howkins, Frozen Empires: An Environmental History of the Antarctic Peninsula (Oxford University Press, 2017), 19.

  60. 60.

    US Congress Office of Technology Assessment, Polar Prospects: A Minerals Treaty for Antarctica, 19.

  61. 61.

    Watts, International Law and the Antarctic Treaty System, 224. Christopher C Beeby, “The Antarctic Treaty System as a Resource Management Mechanism—Nonliving Resources,” in Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment (National Academy Press, 1986), 271.

  62. 62.

    “The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Minerals and Its Future.” Watts, International Law and the Antarctic Treaty System, 221–51. Elliott, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, 135–61.

  63. 63.

    Andersen, “Negotiating a New Regime: How CRAMRA Came into Existence,” 106–07.

  64. 64.

    Alan Brown, “The Design of CRAMRA: How Appropriate for the Protection of the Environment,” ibid., 113–14. Christopher C. Joyner, “CRAMRA: The Ugly Duckling of the Antarctic Treaty System?” ibid., 171–73. James N. Barnes, “Protection of the Environment in Antarctica: Are Present Regimes Enough?” ibid., 191–94.

  65. 65.

    Watts, International Law and the Antarctic Treaty System, 5.

  66. 66.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Sixteenth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Bonn, 7–18 October 1991, 197.

  67. 67.

    “Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty”, Article 25.5(a).

  68. 68.

    Calling it a ‘moratorium’ was misleading as an activity not occurring could hardly be paused. Although the language gained popularity, the moratorium was actually cast more subtly, such as ‘urging states to refrain’.

  69. 69.

    Heap, “The Political Case for the Minerals Convention,” 51. In May 1989, the United States threatened that if CRAMRA failed, it would no longer feel bound to observe the moratorium. 24 May 1989, WL36835 “Protection of Antarctic environment: CRAMRA” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  70. 70.

    Andersen, “Negotiating a New Regime: How CRAMRA Came into Existence,” 107.

  71. 71.

    “Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities”, Article 8(9). Rüdiger Wolfrum, “The Unfinished Task: CRAMRA and the Question of Liability,” in The Antarctic Treaty System in World Politics, ed. Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl and Willy Østreng (Macmillan/Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 1991). The ‘liability’ annex under the Protocol took 13 years to develop and, at the time of writing, is yet to enter into force. It can be argued that Annex VI does not even address liability for environmental damage, providing only an obligation to respond to emergencies, or compensate those who do.

  72. 72.

    Beeby, “The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Minerals and Its Future,” 57.

  73. 73.

    15 December 1989, “Antarctic IDC—Post-ATCM XV” (AWJ personal notes).

  74. 74.

    “Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities”, Article 41.2.

  75. 75.

    13 October 1989, “ATCM XV” (AWJ personal notes), 37.

  76. 76.

    “Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty”, Article 25.5(a).

  77. 77.

    Martin J. Riddle and Paul M. Goldsworthy, “Environmental Science and the Environmental Ethos of Anare,” in Australian Antarctic Science: The First 50 Years of Anare, ed. Harvey J. Marchant, Desmond J. Lugg and Patrick G. Quilty (Australian Antarctic Division, 2002), 564–66.

  78. 78.

    26 September 1983, ANT/XII/6/CORR 1 “Man’s impact on the Antarctic environment” (AU-ATADD-3-BB-AQ-644). Senate Standing Committee on National Resources, “The Natural Resources of the Australian Antarctic Territory,” 98–122.

  79. 79.

    IUCN—The World Conservation Union, A Strategy for Antarctic Conservation (IUCN, 1991). Walton, “The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research and the Antarctic Treaty,” 80–81.

  80. 80.

    10 February 1984, “Australia neglecting Antarctic environment” Canberra Times, 9. 18 February 1986, Bob Beale “The Antarctic: our icy rubbish dump” Sydney Morning Herald, 1 and 7.

  81. 81.

    Concerns about the implications of CRAMRA’s title emerged early. 6 April 1989, PA73569 “Antarctica: Minerals convention: French position” (NAA: B1387 88/893 PART 3). 13 November 1989, UN048467 “Antarctica: Tinker Foundation seminar “Antarctica: Continent at Risk, New York, 10 November” (NAA: B1387 89/932 PART 1).

  82. 82.

    Bowden, The Silence Calling: Australians in Antarctica 1947–1997, 409. Bowden quotes David Lyons (an Australian delegate to CRAMRA negotiations), who, in turn, credits Sweden. Ironically, CRAMRA’s unfortunate title came from an Australian proposal—see Chap. 3.

  83. 83.

    CRAMRA’s public relations problem is explored by others: Brown, “The Design of CRAMRA: How Appropriate for the Protection of the Environment,” 115. Scully, “The Development of the Antarctic Treaty System,” 35–36. John Heap in: Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Sixteenth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Bonn, 7–18 October 1991, 197.

  84. 84.

    Mawson argued that “the geographical position of this land [Antarctica] privileges Australians in taking advantage of its products and renders the collection of scientific data therefrom obligatory upon us”. 20 January 1911 ‘Lecture by Dr. Mawson: Appeal to Australians’, The Press, 9.

  85. 85.

    The changing priorities are explored in Jan Morgan, “Australia’s Antarctic Policy: Theory and Practice” (University of Tasmania, 1996). Marcus Haward and Andrew Jackson, “Australia’s Antarctic Future,” in Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System: 50 Years of Influence, ed. Marcus Haward and Tom Griffiths (UNSW Press, 2011).

  86. 86.

    Richard A. Herr and Bruce W Davis, “ATS Decision-Making and Change: The Role of Domestic Politics in Australia,” in Governing the Antarctic, ed. Olav Schram Stokke and Davor Vidas (Cambridge University Press, 1996), 338–44.

  87. 87.

    Consider interventions by Möllemann in Germany; Major in the United Kingdom; and Bush in the United States.

  88. 88.

    “Antarctica: A Continent for Science,” (British Antarctic Survey, 1987), 32.

  89. 89.

    24 May 1989, Keith Scott “NZ criticism for park decision” Canberra Times, 14. 24 May 1989, “A risky strategy on Antarctica” The Age, 13.

  90. 90.

    25 February 1990, Prime Minister (Hawke) “Transcript of debate with Andrew Peacock, Leader of the Opposition, ABC Studios, Sydney” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-109). 6 March 1991, House of Representatives Hansard, 1419. 17 August 1990, Senator Fred Chaney media release “Antarctic mining ban” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AU-335).

  91. 91.

    Emerson, The Boy from Baradine, 184.

  92. 92.

    8 July 2010, AAD email to author “FW: Enquiry from NAA re Antarctic mining”.

  93. 93.

    19 November 1990, “XI SCM” Opening statements (AWJ personal notes), 3. 23 February 2020, “Saving Antarctica” The History Hour BBC World Service, https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3csypzz (accessed 6 April 2020), 7:12.

  94. 94.

    ASOC’s history is summarised at: https://www.asoc.org/about/history (accessed 3 February 2021).

  95. 95.

    Hawke, The Hawke Memoirs, 467–68.

  96. 96.

    9 April 1989, transcript of Laurie Oakes’ interview, National Nine Network (NAA: B1387 88/893 PART 3).

  97. 97.

    See, for example: Barnes and Porter, Let’s Save Antarctica! Barney Brewster, Antarctica, Wilderness at Risk (Sun Books, 1982). J. G. Mosley, Antarctica, Our Last Great Wilderness (Australian Conservation Foundation, 1986).

  98. 98.

    Carrick, “Conservation of Nature in Antarctica,” 534. This built on his earlier ideas in: “Conservation of Nature in the Antarctic,” ibid., no. 66 (1960). Robert Cushman Murphy, “Antarctic Conservation: Only by Careful Planning and Cooperation Can We Save This Primeval Region from the Ravages of Man,” Science 135, no. 3499 (1962): 195.

  99. 99.

    J. G. Mosley, “The Natural Option: The Case for an Antarctic World Park,” in Australia’s Antarctic Policy Options, ed. Stuart Harris (Australian National University, 1984). W. A. Budd, “Scientific Research in Antarctica and Australia’s Effort,” ibid., 246. 21 April 1986, ANT SCM/8 ASOC Paper no. 4 “The World Park option for Antarctica”. (NAA: B1387 1985/889 PART 2).

  100. 100.

    Elliott, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, 169.

  101. 101.

    21 April 1986, ANT SCM/8 ASOC Paper no. 4 “The World Park option for Antarctica”. (NAA: B1387 1985/889 PART 2).

  102. 102.

    21 December 1988, House of Representatives Hansard, 3920.

  103. 103.

    Senate Standing Committee on National Resources, “The Natural Resources of the Australian Antarctic Territory,” 119.

  104. 104.

    John Hildebrand, A Northern Front: New and Selected Essays (Borealis, 2005), 27.

  105. 105.

    The nomenclature used included: nature reserve (1962); international park (1962); international sanctuary (1962); international nature reserve (1963); special conservation area (1964); world park (1972); international reserve (1975); international park (1975); national park (1975); world preserve (1979); world natural heritage (1979); Antarctic world park (1985); Antarctic Treaty park (1987); Antarctic conservation zone world wilderness park (1988); wilderness park (1989); wilderness reserve (1989); world heritage park (1989); world nature park (1989); Antarctic global commons (1989); world wildlife park (1990); global preserve (1990); ecological reserve (1990); international wilderness preserve (1990); global ecological commons (1990); natural reserve, land of science (1990); and natural reserve, devoted to peace and science (adopted in 1991).

  106. 106.

    Joyner, “CRAMRA: The Ugly Duckling of the Antarctic Treaty System?” 174–77. James N. Barnes, “Protection of the Environment in Antarctica: Are Present Regimes Enough?” ibid., 210–11.

  107. 107.

    Robert J. L. Hawke, “Australia’s Policy in Antarctica,” in Antarctica’s Future: Continuity or Change?, ed. R. A. Herr, H. R. Hall, and M. G. Haward (Australian Institute of International Affairs, 1990), 17.

  108. 108.

    T. J. Tierney and G. W. Johnstone, “Conserving Australia’s Wilderness: Antarctica as Wilderness,” in Australia’s Wilderness: Conservation Progress and Plans, ed. Geoff Mosley (Australian Conservation Foundation, 1978). Rupert Summerson and Ian D. Bishop, “Aesthetic Value in Antarctica: Beautiful or Sublime?” The Polar Journal 1, no. 2 (2011).

  109. 109.

    De Wit, Minerals and Mining in Antarctica: Science and Technology, Economics and Politics, 8–42. US Congress Office of Technology Assessment, Polar Prospects: A Minerals Treaty for Antarctica, 155–70, 71–80.

  110. 110.

    6 October 1977, “Aust may rule the icebergs” West Australian. 8 November 1977, House of Representatives Hansard, 3124. 20 November 1978, letter from A. H. Perry to Minister for Science (NAA: B1387 80/456).

  111. 111.

    30 April 2018, Lucinda Dordley “Could an iceberg help Cape Town’s water crisis?” http://www.capetownetc.com/news/icebergs-help-city-water-crisis/ (accessed 3 February 2021). 11 July 2019, “United Arab Emirates entrepreneur’s $80m plan to drag Antarctic iceberg to Perth” https://thewest.com.au/business/water/united-arab-emirates-entrepreneurs-80m-plan-to-drag-antarctic-iceberg-to-perth-ng-b881255618z (accessed 3 February 2021). 14 August 2019, “Why a Middle Eastern business thirsty for water can’t just tow an iceberg from Antarctica” https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-14/why-a-middle-eastern-business-cant-just-tow-antarctica-iceberg/11318638 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  112. 112.

    Husseiny, Iceberg Utilization. Technical options are still examined—see Bruno Spandonide, “Iceberg Water Transportation from Antarctica to Australia” (PhD thesis, University of Tasmania, 2012).

  113. 113.

    Auburn, Antarctic Law and Politics, 244–45.

  114. 114.

    https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/oil-embargo (accessed 3 February 2021). https://aoghs.org/transportation/trans-alaska-pipeline/ (accessed 3 February 2021).

  115. 115.

    Donella H Meadows et al., The Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome on the Predicament of Mankind (Universe Books, 1972). This assessment of global resource sustainability had its origins in 1968.

  116. 116.

    Beeby, “The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Minerals and Its Future,” 52–56. Watts, International Law and the Antarctic Treaty System, 267–76.

  117. 117.

    There was international dismay at the flooding of Lake Pedder National Park to divert water to an adjacent catchment. D. A. Lowe, The Price of Power: The Politics Behind the Tasmanian Dams Case (Macmillan, 1984). B. Galligan, “The Dams Case: A Political Analysis,” in The South West Dam Dispute: The Legal and Political Issues, ed. M. Sornarajah (University of Tasmania, 1983), 110–14.

  118. 118.

    29 May 1989, transcript of interview, Radio NZ Good Morning NZ (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  119. 119.

    Woolcott, The Hot Seat: Reflections on Diplomacy from Stalin’s Death to the Bali Bombings, 214. Hawke and Rielly, Wednesdays with Bob, 47–48. Just before the Hawke government decision, five Greens candidates succeeded in Tasmanian state elections, increasing the Greens’ Federal prospects.

  120. 120.

    Ton Bührs and Peter Christoff, “‘Greening the Antipodes’? Environmental Policy and Politics in Australia and New Zealand,” Australian Journal of Political Science 41, no. 2 (2006): 227–36.

  121. 121.

    4 July 1983, “Antarctica to be new target for conservation” Canberra Times, 5. The Tasmanian dams case had been resolved in the high court three days before, on 1 July 1983, see Michael Coper, The Franklin Dam Case (Butterworths, 1983).

  122. 122.

    Bowden, The Silence Calling: Australians in Antarctica 1947–1997, 412–13. Stephen Murray-Smith, Sitting on Penguins: People and Politics in Australian Antarctica (Hutchinson, 1988).

  123. 123.

    Grahame Cook, “Possible Future Developments,” in The Future of Antarctica: Exploitation Versus Preservation (Manchester University Press, 1990), 100. Three weeks before the government decided to reject CRAMRA, the Senate had called on the government not to sign it: 3 May 1989, Senate Hansard, 1647–1669.

  124. 124.

    8 January 1990, WH112169 “Antarctica: US policy on CRAMRA: Keystone meeting” (NAA: B1387 89/932 PART 1).

  125. 125.

    See, for example: 27 August 1990, WL41558 “New Zealand: environmental groups” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 2). 11 September 1990, WH120835 “Antarctic environment: US views” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 1).

  126. 126.

    9 November 1990, LH114959 “Antarctica: consultations with the United Kingdom” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  127. 127.

    30 April 1990, DFAT minute “Antarctica: meeting with NGOs, Tuesday 1 May” (NAA: B1387 89/932 PART 3). 1 May 1990, author’s handwritten notes “NGOs briefing” (NAA: B1387 90/498 PART 3). 12 February 1991, CE989529 “Antarctica: US position: Environmental initiative” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  128. 128.

    The criticisms originated in India’s 1958 attempt to have the UN discuss Antarctica and Sri Lanka’s initiative at the 1976 Non-Aligned summit. Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol I, 245–46.

  129. 129.

    Beck, The International Politics of Antarctica, 270–99. Tepper and Haward, “The Development of Malaysia’s Position on Antarctica: 1982 to 2004.”

  130. 130.

    India (also in the Group of 77, the main critics of the Treaty) acceded to the Treaty and met the requirements of becoming an ATCP. Possibly to Malaysia’s surprise, it did so in 1983, the first year of the UN Question of Antarctica. Brazil (in 1983) and China (1985) also became ATCPs, somewhat blunting Malaysia’s accusations of exclusivity.

  131. 131.

    Woolcott, The Hot Seat: Reflections on Diplomacy from Stalin’s Death to the Bali Bombings, 210–13. Haward and Mason, “Australia, the United Nations and the Question of Antarctica.”

  132. 132.

    Burgess, “Comprehensive Environmental Protection of the Antarctic: New Approaches for New Times,” 65. Marie Jacobsson, “Building the International Legal Framework for Antarctica,” in Science Diplomacy: Antarctica, and the Governance of International Spaces, ed. Paul Arthur Berkman, et al. (Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2011), 10.

  133. 133.

    “The Antarctic Treaty”, Article XII(2)a.

  134. 134.

    Beeby, “The Antarctic Treaty System: Goals, Performance and Impact,” 17.

  135. 135.

    Daniels, “The Antarctic Treaty,” 15.

  136. 136.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Sixteenth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Bonn, 7–18 October 1991, 133–39.

  137. 137.

    “Item 21: Any other business (A) UN/UNCED matters” in: October 1991, Australia “Brief for final session of SCM XI, Madrid, 3–4 October 1991” (AAD: B13/199). 14 October 1991, BO55790 “Antarctica—ATCM XVI—UN issues (NAA: B1387 90/703 PART 2). 19 November 1990, “XI SCM Plenary” (AWJ personal notes), 4–5. 26 April 1991, “XI SCM (Session II)—HODs” (AWJ personal notes), 50.

  138. 138.

    18 February 1982, Department of Science minute “Contact with the French regarding Antarctic air transport” (AAD: 81/346–1).

  139. 139.

    26 April 1985, BS20929 “Antarctic: French airstrip” (NAA: B1387 88/159).

  140. 140.

    4 June 1987, AAD submission to minister “Request from French for assistance to transport personnel from Antarctica (AAD: 81/346–2). 2 September 1987, AAD submission to minister “Transport of equipment for French Antarctic program on Nella Dan” (AAD: 81/346–3).

  141. 141.

    Prime Minister Michel Rocard defended France’s environmental credentials when the Antarctic initiative was developed. See 18 August 1989, CE764077 “Protection of Antarctic environment: Joint French-Australian initiative” (AAD: 89/578–1).

  142. 142.

    7 February 1991, WL43003 “Antarctica: Environment protection: ANZ consultations” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  143. 143.

    Klaus Strübing, “The Sinking of the German M/V Gotland II in Dec 1981 at the Oates Coast, Antarctica” (paper presented at the International Ice Charting Working Group, Hobart, 26 September 2017). Daniela Liggett, “Destination Icy Wilderness: Tourism in Antarctica,” in Exploring the Last Continent, ed. Daniela Liggett, et al. (Springer, 2015), 389. Australian Transport Safety Board, Report on the Preliminary Investigation in the Grounding of MV Nella Dan at Macquarie Island on 3 December 1987 (ATSB, 1988).

  144. 144.

    The United Kingdom asserted that the rock was marked on UK charts, underscoring calls for better cooperation on hydrographic charting.

  145. 145.

    12 May 1989, “Argentine presentation” (AWJ personal notes). 12 May 1989, “The sinking of the Bahia Paraiso—supplemental information provided by the United States government” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AR-378).

  146. 146.

    20 February 1989, “Scientists urge Antarctic ban on minerals” Canberra Times, 2. Mary Lynn Canmann, “Antarctic Oil Spills of 1989: A Review of the Application of the Antarctic Treaty and the New Law of the Sea to the Antarctic Environment,” Colorado Jourmal of International Environmental Law and Policy 1 (1990).

  147. 147.

    1 March 1989, transcript, Radio New Zealand Morning Report (NAA: B1387 1981/468).

  148. 148.

    17 March 1989, letter Foreign and Commonwealth Office “XVth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (NAA: B1387 88/352).

  149. 149.

    Elliott, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, 165. Howkins, The Polar Regions: An Environmental History, 1–5, 154, 62–66. Jackson and Boyce, “Mining and ‘World Park Antarctica’,” 247–48.

  150. 150.

    Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, 150. “The Effectiveness of CRAMRA,” 163.

  151. 151.

    12 April 1989, Cabinet Submission “Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: 14039, 6415). 22 May 1989, Prime Minister “Protection of the Antarctic environment” http://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/original/00007607.pdf (accessed 3 February 2021).

  152. 152.

    23 May 1989, CE721590 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  153. 153.

    As the objectives were seafloor geomorphology and plate tectonics, the voyage was instructed to stop drilling if gases were encountered.

  154. 154.

    Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960. Jessica O’Reilly, The Technocratic Antarctic: An Enthnography of Scientific Expertise and Environmental Governance (Cornell University Press, 2017), 113–14.

  155. 155.

    Andersen, “Negotiating a New Regime: How CRAMRA Came into Existence,” 94–96, 104–05.

  156. 156.

    26 February 1991, PA85745 “Antarctica: Meetings in March and April” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  157. 157.

    These included the June 1973 Nansen Foundation meeting of experts; January 1985 Beardmore Glacier workshop; November 1989 Antarctica’s Futures conference; April 1990 Australian Studies Centre conference; May 1990 Nansen Institute conference; July 1990 Kiel meeting; and October 1990 Louvain University symposium.

  158. 158.

    The Whangaroa sessions illustrate Beeby convening an ‘inner circle’.

  159. 159.

    Garth Paltridge and Julia Jabour, “Antarctica and the Madrid Protocol,” Institute of Public Affairs Environmental Backgrounder, no. 23 (1996): 2.

  160. 160.

    Examples include Heap (United Kingdom), Scully (United States), Wolfrum (Germany) and Beeby (New Zealand). Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, 104.

  161. 161.

    English, French, Russian and Spanish are official languages. The 29 ATCPs use at least 18 national languages. CRAMRA was the only time a fifth language, Chinese, was recognised: “Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities”, Article 67.

  162. 162.

    Consider debate over words like “agreed”, “welcomed” or “noted” concerning a proposition, and debate over “most”, “many”, “several” or “some” to describe the level of support for it. Such perennial debates reflected “the mood of the room” or “the sense of the meeting”. 6 December 1990, “Plenary (SCM report)” (AWJ personal notes), 74–76.

  163. 163.

    Examples of blocs included the claimant states, the Southern Hemisphere Parties, European or Latin American Parties.

  164. 164.

    The Parties sit in order of their name in the language in which the ATCM is hosted—most often this is English which allows the United Kingdom and United States to sit together.

  165. 165.

    Chile appeared keen for a Southern Hemisphere claimant, other than Argentina, to chair. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 115.

  166. 166.

    22 September 1989, PA76777 “Antarctica—discussions with the French” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  167. 167.

    18 October 1989, PA77195 “Antarctica: ATCM XV, Paris, 9–20 October—Report No 4” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  168. 168.

    5 November 1990, SC21314 “Antarctic environment: Indicative draft convention” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  169. 169.

    10 April 1991, BO53504 “Antarctica: SCM XI—Four country representations” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  170. 170.

    30 January 1991, GE92663 “Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  171. 171.

    18 June 1984, WL19815 “Antarctica minerals meeting” (NAA: B1387 1981/343 PART 2). New Zealand’s pursuit of its interests seems to have been held back in deference to Beeby’s role. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 185 and 251. ibid., 251.

  172. 172.

    Elliott, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, 125–26.

  173. 173.

    The proportion of women on delegations had since risen to 25%.

  174. 174.

    Emma Shortis, “‘In the Interest of All Mankind’: Women and the Environmental Protection of Antarctica,” in Feminist Ecologies, ed. L Stevens, P Tait, and D Varney (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).

  175. 175.

    These have also been described as intellectual leaders, entrepreneurial leaders or structural leaders. Young, “Political Leadership and Regime Formation: On the Development of Institutions in International Society,” 284–85, 303.

  176. 176.

    11 October 1972, letter from FCO to AHC London “Seventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Antarctic Resources—effects of mineral exploration” (NAA: B1387 1991/462 PART 3). 29 May 1973, “Prepared remarks by Ambassador Edvard Hambro” (NAA: B1387 1991/370).

  177. 177.

    Bowden, The Silence Calling: Australians in Antarctica 1947–1997, 409.

  178. 178.

    Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol II, 383–86. Hall, International Regime Formation and Leadership: The Origins of the Antarctic Treaty, passim.

  179. 179.

    Emerson, The Boy from Baradine, 182–89. The other ‘icon’ issues were the Tasmanian wilderness, Kakadu, Queensland rainforests and Shelburne Bay.

  180. 180.

    Richardson, “John Arnfield Heap, CMG,” 265.

  181. 181.

    See, for example, the use of personal drafts ‘Beeby I’ to ‘Beeby VII’ to construct a minerals regime. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 146.

  182. 182.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Fourth Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Mineral Resources, 4.

  183. 183.

    21 March 2000, media statement, Foreign Minister “Passing of distinguished diplomat Chris Beeby” https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/passing-distinguished-diplomat-chris-beeby (accessed 3 February 2021).

  184. 184.

    18 March 2006, obituaries “John Heap” https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1513269/John-Heap.html (accessed 3 February 2021).

  185. 185.

    12 May 1989, “ATCM XV—Prep” (AWJ personal notes), 38–39. 25 May 1989, LH75190 “Antarctica: UK statement at Paris Preparatory Meeting” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  186. 186.

    Richardson, “John Arnfield Heap, CMG,” 265.

  187. 187.

    25 March 1991, Greenpeace meeting notes “Meeting with Tristan Garel-Jones” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 2).

  188. 188.

    Illustrating the depth of mutual admiration, Heap’s reply was “Thanks, Rolf!”. 12 May 1989, “ATCM XV—Prep” (AWJ personal notes), 38.

  189. 189.

    November 1990, B.1 Overview in: “Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meetings X and XI, Viña del Mar, Chile 1990, Volume 1” (AAD: B13/199).

  190. 190.

    Heap later found success as director of the Scott Polar Research Institute, but not his ambition of becoming head of a future Treaty Secretariat. Richardson, “John Arnfield Heap, CMG,” 265–66. 23 October 1988, Roger Frankel (handwritten record of conversation) “Points arising from discussion with Gerard van Bohemen” (NAA: B1387 88/893 PART 1).

  191. 191.

    October 1991, ASOC “Report of the XVI Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Bonn” (AU-ATADD-5-BB-GE-124).

  192. 192.

    Christopher C. Joyner and Ethel R. Theis, Eagle over the Ice: The US in the Antarctic (University Press of New England, 1997), 232 at fn66.

  193. 193.

    25 October 1989, ST25515 “Antarctica: ATCM XV: Informal Swedish reaction” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  194. 194.

    Young, “Political Leadership and Regime Formation: On the Development of Institutions in International Society,” 292.

  195. 195.

    Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 135.

  196. 196.

    9 January 1991, National Science Foundation media alert “Protecting Antarctica: Progress in Chile” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  197. 197.

    17 October 1991, “WG1” (AWJ personal notes), 65.

  198. 198.

    October 1989, “15th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Paris, 9–19 October 1989” (AAD: B13/192–1).

  199. 199.

    November 1990, B.1 Overview in: “Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meetings X and XI, Viña del Mar, Chile 1990, Volume 1” (AAD: B13/199). 22 November 1990, SC21384 “Antarctic environment: SCM XI: Delegation statements” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  200. 200.

    Young cites Bohlen’s structural leadership in the 1973 Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears. Young, “Political Leadership and Regime Formation: On the Development of Institutions in International Society,” 292.

  201. 201.

    5 December 1990, SC21441 “Antarctic—SCM—minerals outcome” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  202. 202.

    11 September 1990, WH120835 “Antarctic environment: US views” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 1). 24 September 1990, PA83061 “Antarctica: French MFA discussions with Bohlen” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 1).

  203. 203.

    6 May 1991, letter from Evans to McCarthy (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  204. 204.

    5 December 1990, SC21441 “Antarctic—SCM—minerals outcome” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  205. 205.

    Bergin, “The Politics of Antarctic Minerals: The Greening of White Australia,” 226.

  206. 206.

    Ayres, Fortunate Voyager: The Worlds of Ninian Stephen, 132–35.

  207. 207.

    Jackson and Boyce, “Mining and ‘World Park Antarctica’,” 265.

  208. 208.

    Walton and Clarkson, Science in the Snow, 96–108.

  209. 209.

    Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol I, 6.

  210. 210.

    Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, A Preliminary Assessment of the Environmental Impact of Mineral Exploration/Exploitation in Antarctica (EAMREA).

  211. 211.

    15 December 1989, “Antarctic IDC—Post-ATCM XV” (AWJ personal notes).

  212. 212.

    Elliott, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, 183.

  213. 213.

    20 April 1991, “Scientists urge Antarctic park” The Australian, 16.

  214. 214.

    Laws, “Unacceptable Threats to Antarctic Science.” “Antarctic Politics and Science Are Coming into Conflict.”

  215. 215.

    22 November 1990, “XI SCM Plenary debate” (AWJ personal notes), 16 and 19.

  216. 216.

    John A. Heap, “Antarctic Politics and Antarctic Science: Are They at Loggerheads?” Antarctic Science 3, no. 2 (1991). Walton, “The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research and the Antarctic Treaty,” 82–83.

  217. 217.

    Law, “The Antarctic Wilderness: A Wild Idea!.”

  218. 218.

    IUCN—The World Conservation Union, A Strategy for Antarctic Conservation.

  219. 219.

    Walton, “The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research and the Antarctic Treaty,” 81.

  220. 220.

    Mosley, Saving the Antarctic Wilderness, 75.

  221. 221.

    24 April 1991, CE17582 “EC—SVP—Brinkhorst—discussions on Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  222. 222.

    27 August 1990, WL41558 “New Zealand: Environmental groups” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 2).

  223. 223.

    14 October 1974, letter from J. G. Mosley (ACF) to Minister for Science (NAA: B1387 1991/531 PART 1). 1986 ACF Briefing Paper “Antarctic – the world park and world heritage options” (AU-ATADD-5-BB-GE-174), 3–4.

  224. 224.

    22 September 1982, Department of Science memorandum “Evolution of draft paragraphs for inclusion in the report of the first sessions of the 4th Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (AMR/SCM/11)” (NAA: B1387 1982/230 PART 2).

  225. 225.

    16 March 1987, Lyn Goldsworthy (Ecofund) letter to Ian Nicholson (DFAT) (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 1).

  226. 226.

    27 April 1987, Cabinet Minute, Submission 4757 “Australian objectives in Antarctic minerals negotiations” (NAA: A14039 4757).

  227. 227.

    21 December 1988, House of Representatives Hansard, 3963–3964.

  228. 228.

    Antarctic Treaty, Interim Report of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meeting, Viña Del Mar, 19 November-6 December 1990, 5 and 96.

  229. 229.

    Among others, ASOC included Friends of the Earth, the World Wildlife Fund, and the Australian Conservation Foundation. ASOC was the only means for Greenpeace to access the ATCM.

  230. 230.

    Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition “Some farewell thoughts from some of Jim’s longtime colleagues” https://www.asoc.org/about/history/1118 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  231. 231.

    Key individuals include Janet Dalziel, Lyn Goldsworthy, Bruce Manheim, Beth Marks, Doug Nicol, Cassandra Phillips, Maj de Poorter, Cath Wallace, Barry Weeber, Roger Wilson and many others. 15 November 1990, The Wilderness Society media release “Antarctica world wilderness urged” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  232. 232.

    For example, Sir Peter Scott and Prince Phillip; and adventurers Will Steger and Robert Swan.

  233. 233.

    The Wilderness Society identified 11 groups affiliated in Antarctic campaigning (ASOC, Defenders of Wildlife, Environmental Defense Fund, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, Humane Society of the United States, National Audubon Society, National Wildlife Federation, Natural Resources Defense Council, Sierra Club, the Antarctica Projecti and the Wilderness Society).

  234. 234.

    11 October 1989, Philip Jacobson “Fight to save Antarctica: Cousteau draws battle lines” The Times (United Kingdom), 9.

  235. 235.

    Shortis, ““Who Can Resist This Guy?” Jacques Cousteau, Celebrity Diplomacy, and the Environmental Protection of the Antarctic,” 372. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 226–28.

  236. 236.

    A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 260.

  237. 237.

    4 October 1991, speech by Senator Gareth Evans “Antarctica: An international environment win for Australia” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AU-354), 1–2.

  238. 238.

    Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 180–81, 97 and 295.

  239. 239.

    Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents (Looseleaf Volumes), Vol III, Booklet AT/Rev. 1992–94, 6.

  240. 240.

    Redgwell, “Antarctica: Wilderness Park or Eldorado Postponed?” 139.

  241. 241.

    19 June 1990, SC20769 “Antarctica: Chile’s policy and the SCM” (AAD: 89/914–1).

  242. 242.

    2 December 1990, SC21431 “Antarctica—SCM—minerals issues” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  243. 243.

    8 January 1991, WL42779 “New Zealand/French relations: Rocard’s visit to New Zealand and Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1). 7 February 1991, WL43003 “Antarctica: Environment protection: ANZ consultations” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  244. 244.

    14 July 1977, CH542725 “ANZUS: Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 77/176 PART 1).

  245. 245.

    Evans and Grant, Australia’s Foreign Relations in the World of the 1990’s, 322.

  246. 246.

    Jackson and Kriwoken, “The Protocol in Action, 1992–2010,” 301.

  247. 247.

    17 September 1985, PA41352 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 85/997).

  248. 248.

    14 November 1989, CH563488 “Future relations with France” (AAD: 89/578–1).

  249. 249.

    11 September 1990, PA82856 “Antarctic initiative” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 1).

  250. 250.

    19 October 1990, memorandum Bill Campbell, A-G’s to Bill Bush, DFAT (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3). 21 March 1991, PA86145 “Antarctica: Andersen text: French comments on Australian amendments” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  251. 251.

    4 January 1991, CE974457 “Antarctica: comprehensive environmental protection” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1). 13 January 1991, PA84985 “Antarctic environment initiative: Paris consultations” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  252. 252.

    19 April 1991, PA86579 “Antarctic: French views” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  253. 253.

    21 March 1991, PA86146 “Antarctica: Rome consultations and 4P text” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  254. 254.

    27 March 1991, RO48549 “Antarctic environment: Four country consultations: Rome” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  255. 255.

    Sulikowski, France and the Antarctic Treaty System, 131–24 and 371–73.

  256. 256.

    Sollie, Antarctic Resources: Report from the Informal Meeting of Experts 30 May-9 June 1973, 2. Heap, “The Political Case for the Minerals Convention,” 44. Beeby, “The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Minerals and Its Future,” 47.

  257. 257.

    For example: Hawke’s decision on CRAMRA contradicted advice from his Foreign Ministry and Environment Department; John Major intervened to support the mining ban; and President Bush announced that the United States would sign the Protocol.

  258. 258.

    19 June 1990, Janet Dalziel (Greenpeace) “Meeting with Prime Minister” (NAA: B1387 90/498 PART 3).

  259. 259.

    17 April 1991, BO53601 “Antarctica: SCM XI Madrid, 22–30 April—German position on minerals” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

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Jackson, A. (2021). Influences and Influencers in Antarctic Affairs. In: Who Saved Antarctica? . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78405-8_9

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