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Antarctic Consensus Restored: April to October 1991

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Who Saved Antarctica?

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Abstract

The Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting in Madrid in April 1991 resulted in a draft environment regime. Considerable progress had been made on the content of a protocol which included a mining ban and principles for all Antarctic activities. Detailed rules on environmental impact assessment, protection of flora and fauna, waste management and prevention of marine pollution were also drafted. The content and scope of the regime was largely completed, and there was optimism that after final drafting it would be possible to adopt the regime in June, on the 30th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty. It was also hoped to have the matter settled and consensus restored by then to help forestall a review of the Antarctic Treaty itself, and reduce the prospects of the Antarctic issue being taken before the United Nations Conference on Environment and Develop in 1992. Last-minute objections prevented this from occurring. The key issue blocking consensus related to provisions for reviewing the regime and the mining prohibition in particular. Further discussions allowed the outstanding issues to be resolved, including the question of the form of regime. The Madrid Protocol was adopted on 4 October 1991, marking the restoration of consensus.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    30 April 1991, Prime Minister “For media” http://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/original/00008287.pdf (accessed 3 February 2021).

  2. 2.

    1 May 1991, “Australia has big win on Antarctic” The Mercury, 3; “A 50-year reprieve for Antarctica” The Age, 13; and Mike Seccombe “Nations agree to protect Antarctica” Sydney Morning Herald, 9.

  3. 3.

    1 May 1991, Lenore Taylor “Antarctic agreement angers mining lobby” The Australian, 2; and Alan Griffiths media release “Antarctic agreement” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2). 2 May 1991, Lenore Taylor “Miners attack Antarctic ban” The Australian, 5.

  4. 4.

    6 May 1991, letter from Evans to McCarthy (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  5. 5.

    7 May 1991, House of Representatives Hansard, 3068–3069.

  6. 6.

    6 May 1991, BO53845 “Antarctica: Madrid SCM” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  7. 7.

    6 May 1991, WL43767 “Antarctic: SCM—second session—Madrid” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  8. 8.

    7 May 1991, CE22471 “Antarctica—SCMXI—Second session—UK” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  9. 9.

    17 May 1991, ST28065 “Antarctica: Comprehensive environmental protection agreement” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  10. 10.

    20 May 1991, SC22020 “Antarctica: SCM XI—second session—Madrid, Chilean reaction” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  11. 11.

    14 May 1991, WH130900 “Antarctic environment: US congressional hearing” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  12. 12.

    16 May 1991, WH131025 “Antarctica: SCMXI second session: US views” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  13. 13.

    10 May 1991, WH130827 “Antarctic environment: Madrid SCM: UK views” (NAA: B1387 1991/56 PART 1).

  14. 14.

    10 May 1991, United Kingdom, House of Commons Hansard, column 605. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199091/cmhansrd/1991-05-10/Writtens-1.html (accessed 3 February 2021).

  15. 15.

    15 May 1990, Michael McCarthy “Major adds weight to Antarctic mining ban” The Australian, 10.

  16. 16.

    14 May 1991, LH127520 “Antarctica: British position and Madrid agreement” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  17. 17.

    15 May 1991, Senate Hansard, 3375.

  18. 18.

    6 June 1991, LH129301 “High Commissioner’s call on Garel-Jones: Antarctica” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  19. 19.

    20 May 1991, letter from Heap to Moncur “Sledge dogs” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  20. 20.

    23 May 1991, Antarctic Division minute to Departmental Secretary “Minister’s interview on 7.30 Report” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  21. 21.

    31 May 1991, DASETT brief to minister “Cabinet submission seeking Government approval of Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty” (NAA: B1387 91/290). The loss of staff motivation came from the prospect of the additional workload, not disappointment over the dogs.

  22. 22.

    24 May 1991, DFAT facsimile “Attachment D: Coordination comments” (NAA: B1387 91/290).

  23. 23.

    6 June 1991, file note “Precis of CD 15284 of 6 June 1991” (NAA: B1387 91/290).

  24. 24.

    20 May 1991, CE28150 “Antarctica: Letter to Beeby on area of application” (NAA: B1387 1991/56 PART 1).

  25. 25.

    30 May 1991, PA87283 “Antarctic: 3rd session of SCM XI Madrid, June—draft environmental protocol” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  26. 26.

    4 June 1991, PA87355 “Antarctic: 3rd session of SCM XI Madrid, June—draft environmental protocol” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  27. 27.

    6 June 1991, CE35484 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid, June—area of application of the environmental protection protocol” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  28. 28.

    12 June 1991, WL44110 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid, June—area of application of environmental protection protocol” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  29. 29.

    12 June 1991, CE37565 “Antarctica: UK views on area of application of environment protection protocol” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  30. 30.

    21 May 1991, CE28655 “Antarctica: 3rd session of SCM XI Madrid, June—draft environmental protocol” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  31. 31.

    30 May 1991, PA87283 “Antarctic: 3rd session of SCM XI Madrid, June—draft environmental protocol” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  32. 32.

    6 June 1991, “What’s the hurry in Antarctica?” New York Times.

  33. 33.

    “Report by the Chairman of the Legal Drafting Committee” in: Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative, Madrid, 22–30 April 1991; 17–22 June 1991; 3–4 October 1991, 63.

  34. 34.

    12 June 1991, WH132107 “Antarctica: US proposal on Antarctic environmental protocol” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  35. 35.

    13 June 1991, MA27048 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid—United States position on prohibition of mining” (AAD: 91/226–1). 14 June 1991, CE38959 “Antarctica—SCMXI—US position—Demarche” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  36. 36.

    14 June 1991, CE38958 “Antarctica—SCMXI—United States position” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  37. 37.

    14 June 1991, WWF letter, James P. Leape to Bohlen. 14 June 1991, Environmental Defense Fund letter, Bruce Mannheim to Robert B. Zoellick. 14 June 1991, ASOC media release “US proposes to undo agreement on 50 year Antarctic minerals ban” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  38. 38.

    14 June 1991, CE38960 “Antarctica SCM XI, Madrid: US position on prohibition of mining” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  39. 39.

    17 June 1991, WH132218 “Antarctica SCMXI, Madrid: US position on prohibition of mining” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  40. 40.

    18 to 19 June 1991, several reports of Parties’ views (AAD: 91/226–1).

  41. 41.

    14 June 1991, MA27052 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid: Report No 2—Drafting Committee” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  42. 42.

    18 June 1991, MA27066 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid: report no 3—mining issue” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  43. 43.

    27 June 1991, SC22159 “Antarctica—SCMXI environment protection protocol—Chilean views” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  44. 44.

    21 June 1991, TK71897 “Antarctica SCMXI—3rd session: US position—Japanese views” (AAD: 91/226–3).

  45. 45.

    18 June 1991, LH129944 “Antarctica SCMXI, Madrid: US position on prohibition on mining: UK views” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  46. 46.

    20 June 1991, MA27075 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid” (AAD: 91/226–2), 4. In the “back room” were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, France, Germany, New Zealand and the United States.

  47. 47.

    20 June 1991, MA27075 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  48. 48.

    20 June 1991, facsimile Australian Embassy Madrid to DFAT, Canberra (AAD: 91/226–1).

  49. 49.

    21 June 1991, Senate Hansard, 5321–5322.

  50. 50.

    22 June 1991, MA27089 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid, 17–22 June: Cable no 6—outcome” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  51. 51.

    Various press statements and media briefing had been prepared. (AAD: 91/226–1).

  52. 52.

    23 June 1991, media release “McKinnon deplores collapse of talks on Antarctic environment” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  53. 53.

    24 June 1991, transcript, Radio New Zealand Morning Report (AAD: 91/226–2).

  54. 54.

    24 June 1991, facsimile PM&C to DFAT “Antarctic environment protocol: letter from the Prime Minister to President Bush” (AAD: 91/226–1).

  55. 55.

    25 June 1991, CH627864 “Antarctica—SCMXI—environmental protection protocol” (AAD: 91/226–3).

  56. 56.

    27 June 1991, SC22159 “Antarctica—SCMXI environment protection protocol—Chilean views” (AAD: 91/226–2). 28 June 1991, WL44253 “Antarctica—SCM XI—environment protection protocol” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  57. 57.

    28 June 1991, PA87763 “Antarctica—SCM XI environment protection protocol” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  58. 58.

    28 June 1991, LH130774 “Antarctica—SCMXI environment protection protocol—British views” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  59. 59.

    27 June 1991, WH132665 “Antarctica: SCMXI: Environment protection protocol” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  60. 60.

    1 July 1991, WH132790 “Antarctica: SCM XI—environment protection protocol” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  61. 61.

    3 July 1991, WH132881 “Antarctica: SCM XI: Environment protection protocol” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  62. 62.

    George Bush, “Statement on the environmental protection protocol to the Antarctic Treaty, 3 July 1991” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29657 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  63. 63.

    4 July 1991, CE46838 “Antarctica: Environmental protection: United States position” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 2). See also a more formal statement at: 4 July 1991, Prime Minister, for media http://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/original/00008313.pdf (accessed 3 February 2021). It was later reported that Japan and the USSR had also written to Bush. See 5 July 1991, Greg Austin, “Bush comes around on Antarctic mining ban” Sydney Morning Herald, 5.

  64. 64.

    4 July 1991, PA87869 “Antarctica: SCM XI: Environment protection protocol” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  65. 65.

    4 July 1991, transcript Radio National The World Today. 4 July 1991, Greenpeace Australia media release “Bush overturns decision—US agreed to ban mining in Antarctic”, quoted in: 4 July 1991, CE47001 “Antarctica: Environment protocol: Greenpeace position” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  66. 66.

    15 July 1991, letter Greenpeace Australia, Lyn Goldsworthy to Kelly (AAD: 91/226–2).

  67. 67.

    8 August 1991, WL44458 “Antarctica: SCM XI final session, Madrid, October: New Zealand views” (AAD: 91/919).

  68. 68.

    5 July 1991, WH132922 “Antarctica: Environmental protocol: US position” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  69. 69.

    16 July 1991, MA27194 “Antarctica: Third period of second session of SCM XI” (AAD: 91/919).

  70. 70.

    24 July 1991, WH133678 “Antarctica: US views” (AAD: 90/111–1).

  71. 71.

    2 August 1991 “Specific Additional Protocol on Antarctic Environmental Protection Between the Argentine Republic and the Republic of Chile” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AR-178).

  72. 72.

    26 July 1991, letter from Heap to McCarthy (AAD: 90/111–2).

  73. 73.

    6 September 1991, letter from Wyndham to Heap (AAD: B13/193).

  74. 74.

    14 August 1991, GE94399 “UNCED: PrepCom III: Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 90/703 PART 2). 15 August 1991, CH63252 “Antarctica: UNCED PrepCom III” (NAA: B1387 90/703 PART 2).

  75. 75.

    31 July 1991, TPN Embassy of Japan “Japanese comment on Article 25 of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty”; 23 August 1991, AAD memorandum to DFAT “Japanese proposal regarding protocol Articles 25 and 26”; and 30 August 1991, TK72711 “Antarctica: SCM XI: Japanese proposal on protocol” (AAD: 91/919).

  76. 76.

    6 September 1991, letter from McCarthy to Heap (AAD: B13/193).

  77. 77.

    Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Article 18 http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1974/2.html (accessed 3 February 2021).

  78. 78.

    19 September 1991, facsimile message FCO to DFAT (AAD: 91/919).

  79. 79.

    27 September 1991, CE78682 “Antarctica—liability annex to environmental protocol”; and 30 September 1991, WH136147 “Antarctica: liability annex to protocol: US views” (AAD: 91/919).

  80. 80.

    26 September 1991, WH135969 “Antarctica ATCM XVI: Reply to Heap (UK): US views” (AAD: 90/111–2). Idiotic or not, the national statements were attached to Final Report. Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative, Madrid, 22–30 April 1991; 17–22 June 1991; 3–4 October 1991, 159–201.

  81. 81.

    October 1991, “Final session of SCM XI, Madrid, 3–4 October 1991” (AAD: B13/199).

  82. 82.

    4 October 1991, MA27560 “Antarctic environment protocol” (AAD: 91/919). Four ministers signed for their countries and officials signed for the others (McCarthy signed for Australia)—see 4 October 1991 “Final Act of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meeting” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-239). The outstanding signatures were done the following year. See XVII ATCM/INFO 17 “Status of signatures and ratifications of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM17/ip/ATCM17_ip017_e.pdf (accessed 19 March 2020).

  83. 83.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative, Madrid, 22–30 April 1991; 17–22 June 1991; 3–4 October 1991, 105–06.

  84. 84.

    5 October 1991, “Mining ban fragile: Antarctic lobbyist” The Dominion (New Zealand). 5 October 1991, “Antarctic mining banned for 50 years” The Age, 15.

  85. 85.

    The Protocol and its annexes are at: https://ats.aq/e/key-documents.html (accessed 23 March 2020).

  86. 86.

    October 1991, overview and objectives, in “Brief for the Australian delegation to the 16th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Bonn, 7–18 October 1991” (AAD: B13/193).

  87. 87.

    Andrew Jackson and Lorne Kriwoken, “The Protocol in Action, 1992–2010,” in Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System: 50 Years of Influence, ed. Marcus Haward and Tom Griffiths (UNSW Press, 2011), 301–02.

  88. 88.

    4 October 1991, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade news release “Australia signs agreement to protect the Antarctic environment” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AU-353).

  89. 89.

    9 October 1991, “ATCM XVI—Plenary” (AWJ personal notes), 14–21.

  90. 90.

    8 October 1991, BO55764 “Antarctica—ATCM XVI—Bonn—7-18 October” (AAD: 90/111–2). 7 October 1991, “ATCM XVI—Plenary—Reports” (AWJ personal notes), 5.

  91. 91.

    18 October 1991, BO55868 “Antarctica: ATCMXVI: Final report and recommendations” (AAD: 90/111–2).

  92. 92.

    14 October 1991, BO55789, “Antarctica—ATCM XVI: Report no 2—SCM XI and working groups” (AAD: 90/111–2). 7–18 October 1991, “ATCM XVI”(AWJ personal notes). The move to annual meetings reflected agreement that activities subject to a Comprehensive Environmental Evaluation not be held up by more than 15 months.

  93. 93.

    The legal experts met from 1993 to 1997, and subsequent formal negotiations resulted in the 2005 adoption of the Protocol’s Annex VI. See https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/331 (accessed 27 March 2020). Antarctic Treaty, Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting: Final Report of the Twenty-Eighth Meeting, Stockholm, Sweden, 6–17 June 2005 (2005), 33–39.

  94. 94.

    7 October 1991, XVI ATCM/WP 1 “Area protection and management in the Antarctic” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM16/wp/ATCM16_wp001_e.pdf (accessed 27 March 2020).

  95. 95.

    Antarctic Treaty, Recommendation ATCM XVI-10 “Annex V of the Environmental Protocol (Area Protection and Management)” https://documents.ats.aq/keydocs/vol_1/vol1_9_AT_Protocol_Annex_V_e.pdf (accessed 27 March 2020). Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Sixteenth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Bonn, 7–18 October 1991 (1991), 24–25.

  96. 96.

    14 October 1991, BO55789, Antarctica—ATCM XVI: Report no 2—SCM XI and working groups” (AAD: 90/111–2). October 1991, 16th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting “Summary of delegation reports and action arising” (AAD: B13/193). The French paper is at https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM16/wp/ATCM16_wp002_e.pdf (accessed 27 March 2020).

  97. 97.

    18 October 1991, BO55868 “Antarctica: ATCMXVI: Final report and recommendations” (AAD: 90/111–2). 10–11 October 1991, “ATCM XVI—WG1” (AWJ personal notes), 27–32, 34–37.

  98. 98.

    11 November 1991, Antarctic Division minute, Rex Moncur “Report on overseas visit” (AAD: 91/919).

  99. 99.

    Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, “Leading by Example,” ECO LXXXI, no. 1 (1991): 4. France’s subsequent abandonment of the Dumont d’Urville runway was not solely due to NGO objections—before being commissioned, the runway was destroyed by storm damage. See Tara Patel, “Waves Smash Antarctic Airstrip,” New Scientist, no. 1914 (1994).

  100. 100.

    Michael Szabo, State of the Ice: An Overview of Human Impacts in Antarctica (Greenpeace International, 1993), 2–21.

  101. 101.

    Mike G Richardson, “Regulating Tourism in the Antarctic: Issues of Environment and Jurisdiction,” in Implementing the Environmental Protection Regime for the Antarctic, ed. Davor Vidas (Kluwer, 2000).

  102. 102.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Sixteenth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Bonn, 7–18 October 1991, 133–39.

  103. 103.

    Invoking the Article XII review provision has never been subsequently considered and Parties have made several declarations confirming commitment to the Treaty.

  104. 104.

    XVII ATCM/INFO 17 (USA) “Status of signatures and ratifications of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM17/ip/ATCM17_ip017_e.pdf (accessed 27 March 2020).

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    Andrew Jackson

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Jackson, A. (2021). Antarctic Consensus Restored: April to October 1991. In: Who Saved Antarctica? . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78405-8_8

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