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Negotiating an Environment Protocol: November 1990 to April 1991

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Who Saved Antarctica?

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Abstract

In 1990, the Antarctic Treaty Parties met in Chile to consider measures for improving environmental protection as well as the threshold issue of mining in Antarctica. One test of the latter would be whether Parties would proceed with liability rules for the minerals convention. Discussing these rules was abandoned when it became clear that there was insufficient support for the Antarctic minerals convention. Several options for environmental regulation were proposed, and considerable negotiation effort was required to determine the scope, content and form of an overarching regime. An informal draft prepared by Norway helped show how a regime might operate, although there was no agreement on whether it would take form of a Treaty protocol or stand-alone convention. A key issue was the treatment of mining, and, after considerable debate, the draft included a provision that could allow for mining to be prohibited. The regime was incomplete but formed the basis of diplomatic campaigning to continue. Further movement in Parties’ positions occurred, including Japan’s decision to drop support for the minerals convention. With rapid change in attitudes, Parties prepared for the resumption in April 1991 of formal negotiations of what would become the Madrid Protocol.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    18 November 1990, “Delegation meeting” (AWJ personal notes).

  2. 2.

    20 November 1990, SC21369 “Antarctica: Vina del Mar meetings: organisation” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  3. 3.

    1 November 1990, CE951272 “Antarctica: Santiago SCM” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  4. 4.

    November 1990, “Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meetings X and XI, Viña del Mar, Chile 1990. Volume 1” (AAD: B13/199).

  5. 5.

    November 1990, D.1 Australian objectives in: “Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meetings X and XI, Viña del Mar, Chile 1990. Volume 1” (AAD: B13/199).

  6. 6.

    A unified Germany was at an ATCM for the first time.

  7. 7.

    20 November 1990, “XI SCM” (AWJ personal notes).

  8. 8.

    20 November 1990, “Opening statement by the Head of the Delegation of the United Kingdom” https://documents.ats.aq/SATCM11_1/ip/SATCM11_1_ip013_e.pdf (accessed 1 February 2021).

  9. 9.

    20 and 21 November 1990, “XI SCM Plenary” (AWJ personal notes). See also opening statements in SATCM XI-1 Meeting Documents https://legacy.ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings_documents.aspx?lang=e (accessed 26 March 2020).

  10. 10.

    November 1990, A.1 Convention on Antarctic Conservation (New Barnes draft, 5/10/90) in: “Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meetings X and XI, Viña del Mar, Chile 1990. Volume 2, Supplementary documents” (AAD: B13/199).

  11. 11.

    22 November 1990, SC21384 “Antarctic environment: SCM XI: Delegation statements” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  12. 12.

    21 and 22 November 1990, “XI SCM Plenary” (AWJ personal notes).

  13. 13.

    22 November 1990, “XI SCM Plenary” (AWJ personal notes).

  14. 14.

    Tensions between SCAR, GOSEAC and the Treaty Parties are explored in: David W. H. Walton and Peter D Clarkson, Science in the Snow (Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, 2011), 96–108.

  15. 15.

    27 November 1990, SC21410 “Antarctic environment: SCM XI: Plenary” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  16. 16.

    25 November 1990, SC21394 “Antarctic environment: SCM XI” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  17. 17.

    25 November 1990, SC21393 “Antarctica—SCM minerals issue” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  18. 18.

    23 November 1990, “Statement by the Prime Minister—Antarctic policy” http://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/original/00008211.pdf (accessed 1 February 2021).

  19. 19.

    29 November 1990, CE962474 “Antarctica: Australian Prime Minister’s comments” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3), 2.

  20. 20.

    23 November 1990, transcript of ABC Radio PM reported in: 26 November 1990, CE960802 “Antarctica: Radio report of news conference with Prince Phillip and Prime Minister” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  21. 21.

    25 November 1990, letter on WWF letterhead “Open letter to the Special Consultative Meeting of Antarctic Treaty Parties, Viva [sic] del Mar, Chile, 19 November to 6 December 1990” (AWJ personal notes).

  22. 22.

    Antarctic Treaty, Interim Report of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meeting, Viña Del Mar, 19 November-6 December 1990 (Republic of Chile, 1990), 6–7.

  23. 23.

    27 November 1990, SC21409 “Antarctic environment: SCM XI: Working groups” (AAD: 89/914–3).

  24. 24.

    23 and 28 November 1990, “XI SCM—WG1” (AWJ personal notes).

  25. 25.

    29 November 1990, CE962474 “Antarctica: Australian Prime Minister’s comments” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3), 1.

  26. 26.

    Templeton, Protecting Antarctica: The Development of the Treaty System, 10–11.

  27. 27.

    7 October 1991, XVI ATCM/INFO 43 “Report to the XVI Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting on the Meeting Held Pursuant to Recommendation XV-2” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM16/ip/ATCM16_ip043_e.pdf (accessed 19 March 2020).

  28. 28.

    29 November 1990, “XI SCM—Liability” (AWJ personal notes).

  29. 29.

    Francioni, “The Madrid Protocol on the Protection of the Antarctic Environment,” 50.

  30. 30.

    29 and 30 November 1990, “XI SCM—Institutions” (AWJ personal notes).

  31. 31.

    27 November 1990, SC21408 “Antarctica—SCM minerals issue” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  32. 32.

    ‘Non-papers’ assist discussion, but have limited circulation and are not attributed.

  33. 33.

    5 December 1990, SC21441 “Antarctic—SCM—minerals outcome” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  34. 34.

    30 November 1990, AAD note for file (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3). Square brackets capture words requiring further discussion.

  35. 35.

    2 December 1990, SC21431 “Antarctica—SCM—minerals issues” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  36. 36.

    4 December 1990, SC21437 “Antarctic environment: SCM XI: minerals” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  37. 37.

    4 December 1990, CE964356 “Antarctica: Press release” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  38. 38.

    4 December 1990, Senate Hansard, 4869.

  39. 39.

    5 December 1990, SC21441 “Antarctic—SCM—minerals outcome” (AAD: 89/914–2). 4 January 1991, BO52298 “Antarctica: German views on environmental protection” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  40. 40.

    6 December 1990, “XI SCM—Plenary, SCM report” (AWJ personal notes).

  41. 41.

    8 December 1990, SC21459 “Antarctic environment: SCM XI” (AAD: 89/914–3).

  42. 42.

    Antarctic Treaty, Interim Report of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meeting, Viña Del Mar, 19 November-6 December 1990.

  43. 43.

    These were Australia, Belgium, Finland, France, Italy, India, New Zealand, the Netherlands, Poland and Sweden.

  44. 44.

    These were Argentina, Chile, Japan, Republic of Korea, South Africa and the United Kingdom.

  45. 45.

    12 November 1990, “Antarctic initiative: Running sheet: Overview, as at 12 November 1990” (AAD: B13/199). 17 December 1990, handwritten list “DANT’s assessment of where Parties line up” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  46. 46.

    7 December 1990, Paul Hunt and Alexander Smith “Chile meeting drafts plan top to protect the Antarctic” The Age, 7.

  47. 47.

    14 December 1990, DASETT brief to minister “Outcome of Antarctic Treaty meetings in Chile, November 1990” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  48. 48.

    7 December 1990, joint press release “Antarctica: positive move towards mining ban” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  49. 49.

    12 December 1990, WL42628 “New Zealand: Antarctic—meeting of Treaty Parties” (AAD: 89/914–3).

  50. 50.

    13 December 1990, BA36552 “Antarctic environment: SCM XI” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  51. 51.

    31 December 1990, TK70053 “Antarctic environment SCM XI: Japanese views” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  52. 52.

    4 January 1991, BO52298 “Antarctica: German views on environmental protection” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  53. 53.

    4 January 1991, CE974358 “Antarctica: Meetings in April 1991” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  54. 54.

    13 January 1991, PA84984 “Antarctica: Meetings in April 1991” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  55. 55.

    7 February 1991, PA85456 “Antarctica: Bonn informal meeting” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1). 6 February 1991, BO52744 “Antarctica: Meetings in April” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  56. 56.

    4 March 1991, CE997947 “Antarctica: Schedule of meetings in April” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  57. 57.

    3 January 1991, PA84819 “Antarctic environment initiative: Four Party consultations” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  58. 58.

    4 January 1991, CE974192 “Antarctic environment initiative: Four Party consultations” (AAD: 89/578–2).

  59. 59.

    18 January 1991, ST27505 “Antarctic environment initiative: Paris consultations” (AAD: 89/914–3).

  60. 60.

    1 February 1991, ST27562 “Antarctic environment: Like-minded Group” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  61. 61.

    8 February 1991, CE988146 “Antarctic environment—Like-minded Group” (NAA: B1387 1991/56 PART 1).

  62. 62.

    4 January 1991, CE974457 “Antarctica: Comprehensive environmental protection” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  63. 63.

    8 January 1991, WL42779 “New Zealand/French relations: Rocard’s visit to New Zealand and Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  64. 64.

    9 January 1991, WL42795 “Antarctic comprehensive environmental protection” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  65. 65.

    14 January 1991, CE977769 “Antarctica: Environment protection” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 3).

  66. 66.

    17 January 1991, CE979293 “Antarctic environment initiative—New Zealand” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  67. 67.

    29 January 1991, PA85274 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2). At this point, the ‘Like-mindeds’ were Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, Greece, India, New Zealand and Romania.

  68. 68.

    30 January 1991, GE92664 “Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  69. 69.

    8 February 1991, “NGO meeting” (AAD: 91/910–1).

  70. 70.

    29 January 1991, PA85274 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  71. 71.

    22 January 1991, DFAT facsimile message “Antarctic environmental protection initiative” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  72. 72.

    16 January 1991, Attorney-General’s Department memorandum “Preliminary comments on the Andersen draft” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  73. 73.

    29 January 1991, PA85274 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2). 19 February 1991, AAD memorandum “Environmental impact assessment (non-paper)” (AAD: 91/910–1). 21 February 1991, AAD memorandum “Article 7: Environmental impact assessment” (AAD: 91/910–1).

  74. 74.

    7 February 1991, WL43003 “Antarctica: Environment protection: ANZ consultations” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  75. 75.

    16 January 1991, United Kingdom, House of Commons Hansard, columns 833–836 https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199091/cmhansrd/1991-01-16/Orals-1.html (accessed 3 February 2021).

  76. 76.

    20 January 1991, WH125750 “Antarctica: SCM XI: US views” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  77. 77.

    22 January 1991, WH125815 “Antarctic minerals: US policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  78. 78.

    29 January 1991, BA36769 “Antarctica: Uruguayan views on next steps” (NAA: B1387 1991/56 PART 1).

  79. 79.

    28 January 1991, MS44849 “Antarctica: Soviet views” (NAA: B1387 1991/56 PART 1).

  80. 80.

    4 February 1991, “US Non Paper: The issue of Antarctic minerals resources” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  81. 81.

    4 February 1991, CE986406 “Antarctica: Comprehensive environmental protection—US position” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  82. 82.

    8 February 1991, CE988643 “Antarctica: Australian reaction to US non paper on minerals” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1). 6 February 1991, PA85425 “Antarctica: Comprehensive environmental protection—US position” (NAA: B1387 1991/56 PART 1).

  83. 83.

    10 February 1991, WH126793 “Antarctica: US non paper on minerals” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  84. 84.

    12 February 1991, CE989529 “Antarctica: US position: Environmental initiative” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  85. 85.

    16 February 1991, WH127318 “Antarctic: US non paper on minerals” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  86. 86.

    1 March 1991, TK70638 “Antarctica: Japanese reaction to the US non-paper on minerals” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  87. 87.

    26 February 1991, ST27675 “Antarctica: Reaction to US non-paper” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  88. 88.

    20 February 1991, TPN, Embassy of Chile, covering 28 January 1991 “Considerations on the Viña del Mar meeting by the Chairman of the XIth Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meeting” (AAD: 89/914–3).

  89. 89.

    26 February 1991, PA85747 “Antarctica-French MFA meeting with Bohlen” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  90. 90.

    12 March 1991, WH128576 “Antarctica: US non paper on minerals” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1). Supporters of the United States were Argentina, India, Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom, Uruguay, and the Soviet Union.

  91. 91.

    10 February 1991, WH126793 “Antarctica: US non paper on minerals” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  92. 92.

    25 February 1991, Cath Wallace paper “Protocol on environmental protection to the Antarctic Treaty—text prepared by Rolf Trolle Andersen—a critique” (NAA: B1387 1991/56 PART 1).

  93. 93.

    30 January 1991, GE92663 “Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  94. 94.

    22 February 1991, WL43164 “Antarctica: Consultations with New Zealand” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  95. 95.

    6 March 1991, CE999103 “UNCED: Malaysian views” (NAA: B1387 90/703 PART 1).

  96. 96.

    Pakistan, which was not a Treaty Party, visited Dronning Maud Land in 1990–91 and planned another expedition in 1991–92. See 4 October 1990, CE938380 “Antarctica” possible Pakistani expedition” (AAD: B13/199).

  97. 97.

    7 February 1991, CE987644 “Antarctica: UNCED—reply to letter from Maurice Strong” (NAA: B1387 90/703 PART 1).

  98. 98.

    4 March 1991, DFAT facsimile “Australian amendments to the Andersen text” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  99. 99.

    22 February 1991, WL43164 “Antarctica: Consultations with New Zealand” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1). 25 February 1991, WL43169 “Antarctica: Consultations with New Zealand—cable no. 2” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  100. 100.

    26 February 1991, PA85745 “Antarctica: Meetings in March and April” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  101. 101.

    26 February 1991, ST27674 “Antarctic environment—Like-minded Group” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  102. 102.

    5 April 1991, CP14800 “Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  103. 103.

    1 March 1991, RO48338 “Antarctica: Like-minded Group” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  104. 104.

    12 March 1991, PA85950 “Antarctica: Forthcoming meetings: French views” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  105. 105.

    14 March 1991, PA86015 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  106. 106.

    22 March 1991, PA86166 “Antarctica: Antarctic Mining Prohibition Bill, 1991” (NAA: B1387 1990/549 PART 3). Presumably France, also a claimant, considered the legislation tactically problematic rather than illegitimate.

  107. 107.

    21 March 1991, CE5028 “Antarctica: Rome consultations and 4P text” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  108. 108.

    21 March 1991, PA86146 “Antarctica: Rome consultations and 4P text” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  109. 109.

    21 March 1991, PA86145 “Antarctica: Andersen text: French comments on Australian amendments” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3). 13 March 1991, AAD memorandum to A-G’s “Antarctic environment protection instrument—Article 7” (AAD: 91/910–1).

  110. 110.

    22 March 1991, CE6753 “Antarctica: SCMXI—Rome consultations, 25–26 March—Italian and Belgian comment on Australian/French texts” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  111. 111.

    1 March 1991, ST27693 “Antarctica: Environment—consultations with Norway” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1). 12 March 1991, PA85950 “Antarctica: Forthcoming meetings: French views” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  112. 112.

    27 March 1991, RO48549 “Antarctic environment: Four country consultations: Rome” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  113. 113.

    20 March 1991, RO48520 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  114. 114.

    21 March 1991, PA86146 “Antarctica: Rome consultations and 4P text” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  115. 115.

    6 March 1991, CE999066 “Antarctica: Minerals prohibition—Chilean views” (AAD: B13/199).

  116. 116.

    27 March 1991, RO48549 “Antarctic environment: Four country consultations: Rome” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3). At the Like-minded meeting were: Austria, Chile, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, Greece, India, Netherlands, New Zealand, Peru, Romania and Sweden.

  117. 117.

    20 March 1991, LH124064 “Antarctic: UK position on mining” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  118. 118.

    21 March 1991, CE5126 “Antarctic: UK position on mining” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  119. 119.

    5 March 1991, “Testimony of Curtis Bohlen, Assistant Secretary of State for Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 2).

  120. 120.

    11 March 1991, WH128559 “Antarctic environment: Congressional hearing 5.3.91” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  121. 121.

    25 March 1991, United States Senate, letter to George Bush (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 2). The letter was co-signed by Al Gore, Richard Lugar, Ted Kennedy, Joe Biden, John Kerry, Joe Lieberman and Bill Bradley.

  122. 122.

    19 March 1991, WH128885 “Antarctica: ATCM XVI Preparatory Meeting: US views” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  123. 123.

    25 March 1991, FCO press release “Antarctic minerals: Towards a solution” (AAD: B13/199).

  124. 124.

    25 March 1991, Tristan Garel-Jones letter to Members of Parliament (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  125. 125.

    25 March 1991, Greenpeace meeting notes “Meeting with Tristan Garel-Jones” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 2).

  126. 126.

    26 March 1991, LH124489 “Antarctica: SCMXI: UK position” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1). 27 March 1991, LH124603 “Antarctica: SCMXI: British Labour views” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  127. 127.

    26 March 1991, British High Commission (Canberra) message covering letter from Hurd to Evans (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  128. 128.

    27 March 1991, DFAT talking points “Antarctic mining: UK position” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  129. 129.

    5 April 1991, CE10357 “Antarctic—SCM XI—UK position on mining” (AAD: B13/199).

  130. 130.

    5 April 1991, CH619259 “Antarctica: UK mining policy and Australian reaction” (AAD: B13/199).

  131. 131.

    28 March 1991, ST27838 “Antarctica: UK position on mining” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  132. 132.

    3 April 1991, WL43487 “Antarctica: UK position on mining” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1). 4 April 1991, WS38790 “Antarctica: UK position on mining—Polish reactions” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  133. 133.

    5 April 1991, BR14000 “Antarctica: 2nd session of SCM XI—4 country representations: Brazil” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  134. 134.

    Jagdish Patel and Susan Mayer, eds., Antarctica: The Scientists’ Case for a World Park (Greenpeace, 1991).

  135. 135.

    28 March 1991, AAP “Call for Antarctic mining ban” Canberra Times, 5. Farman’s engagement on the environment was potentially embarrassing as the United Kingdom lauded his discovery of ozone depletion as the epitome of British Antarctic science.

  136. 136.

    20 April 1991, “Scientists urge Antarctic park” The Australian, 16.

  137. 137.

    R M Laws, “Unacceptable Threats to Antarctic Science,” New Scientist, no. 1762 (1991).

  138. 138.

    “Antarctic Politics and Science Are Coming into Conflict,” Antarctic Science 3, no. 3 (1991).

  139. 139.

    2 April 1991, author’s handwritten notes “NGOs meeting” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  140. 140.

    Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 299.

  141. 141.

    25 March 1991, WL43420 “Antarctica: ATCM XVI Preparatory Meeting—New Zealand views” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  142. 142.

    14 March 1991, CE2320 “Antarctica: SCM XI-Spanish non-paper” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  143. 143.

    18 March 1991, MA26703 “Antarctica: SCM XI-Madrid, 22–30 April 1991” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  144. 144.

    10 April 1991, MA26781 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid—Four country representations” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  145. 145.

    4 April 1991, draft DFAT briefing to Evans (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2). 15 April 1991, DASETT briefing to Kelly (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  146. 146.

    9 April 1991, Hugh Lamberton “Tough talks ahead on Antarctic mining ban” Canberra Times, 5.

  147. 147.

    5 April 1991, CE10239 “Antarctica” 2nd Session of SCM XI, Madrid, 20–30 April—4 country representations” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  148. 148.

    9 April 1991, WH129563 “Antarctica: SCM XI: Four-country representation to the US” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  149. 149.

    15 April 1991, WH129765 “Antarctica: Four-country representations: US views” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  150. 150.

    15 April 1991, WH129795 “Antarctica: The United States’ views” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1). 17 April 1991, WH129881 “Antarctic minerals: US views” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  151. 151.

    9 April 1991, MS45655 “Antarctica: Four country demarche” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  152. 152.

    9 April 1991, WS38828 “Antarctica: SCM XI—Four country representations” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  153. 153.

    12 April 1991, ND 79403 “Antarctica: SCM XI: Four country representations” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  154. 154.

    4 April 1991, draft DFAT briefing to Evans (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  155. 155.

    9 April 1991, BJ45756 “Antarctica: Second session of SCM XI—4 country representations” (AAD: B13/199).

  156. 156.

    9 April 1991, SE24496 “Antarctica: SCM XI—Four country representations” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 2).

  157. 157.

    10 April 1991, BO53504 “Antarctica: SCM XI—Four country representations” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  158. 158.

    16 April 1991, BO53602 “Antarctica: SCM XI Madrid, 22–30 April German position on minerals” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1). 17 April 1991, BO53601 “Antarctica: SCM XI Madrid, 22–30 April—German position on minerals” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  159. 159.

    11 April 1991, TK71073 “Antarctica: 2nd session, SCM XI, Madrid, 20–30 April—4 country representations: Japan” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  160. 160.

    16 April 1991, TK71138 “Antarctica: ATCP XVI PrepCom, Bonn, 15–19 April—Japanese views” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  161. 161.

    Jackson and Boyce, “Mining and ‘World Park Antarctica’,” 264.

  162. 162.

    15 to 18 April 1991, “ATCM XVI Prep” (AWJ personal notes).

  163. 163.

    18 April 1991, BO53618 “Antarctic: Environmental protection negotiations” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  164. 164.

    19 April 1991, CH620593 “Antarctica—SCM XI—Second session—US position” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1). 22 April 1991, meeting paper XI ATSCM/2/INFO.1 “Position of the United States in the issue of Antarctic minerals resources” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-198).

  165. 165.

    23 April 1991, MA26828 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Second Session, Madrid, 22–30 April—Report No 1” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  166. 166.

    April 1991, “Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meeting XI, Second Session, 22–30 April 1991” (AAD: B13/199).

  167. 167.

    21 April 1991, author’s handwritten notes “4P meeting” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  168. 168.

    19 April 1991, PA86579 “Antarctic: French views” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3).

  169. 169.

    23 April 1991, MA26828 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Second Session, Madrid, 22–30 April—Report No 1” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1). 23 April 1991, MA26829 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid—Reporting cable No 2” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  170. 170.

    22 April 1991, “Delegation meeting” (AWJ personal notes).

  171. 171.

    XI ATSCM/8 “Proposed Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty on Environmental Protection” reproduced in: Antarctic Treaty, Interim Report of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative Meeting, Viña Del Mar, 19 November-6 December 1990, 113–25. XI/ATSCM/2/WP.2 “International Instrument Supplementing the Antarctic Treaty and Establishing a Comprehensive Regime for the Protection of the Environment” (AAD: 91/910–2).

  172. 172.

    22 April 1991, “XI SCM (Session II)” (AWJ personal notes), 2–7. Chile’s proposal appeared in document XI ATSCM/2/WP14 “Draft Preamble to the Protocol on Antarctic environmental protection and draft proposal for objective (Art. 1) and designation (Art. 2)” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-178).

  173. 173.

    23 April 1991, MA26828 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Second Session, Madrid, 22–30 April—Report No 1” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  174. 174.

    23 April 1991, MA26829 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid—Reporting cable No 2” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  175. 175.

    23 April 1991, “XI SCM (Session II)” (AWJ personal notes), 9–15.

  176. 176.

    23 April 1991, “XI SCM (Session II)” (AWJ personal notes), 15–17. 23 April 1991, MA26830 “Antarctica: SCM XI: Madrid—Report No 3 (Minerals: WG1 discussion)” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  177. 177.

    23 April 1991, “XI SCM (Session II)” (AWJ personal notes), 17–20. 23 April 1991, MA26830 “Antarctica: SCM XI: Madrid—Report No 3 (Minerals: WG1 discussion)” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1). 22 April 1991, XI ATSCM/2/WP9 “Mineral resource activities: Proposed by Argentina” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-173).

  178. 178.

    23 April 1991, “XI SCM (Session II)” (AWJ personal notes), 20–25. 23 April 1991, MA26830 “Antarctica: SCM XI: Madrid—Report No 3 (Minerals: WG1 discussion)” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  179. 179.

    23 April 1991, BO53694 “Antarctica: protection: FRG views” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  180. 180.

    6 May 1991, BO53845 “Antarctica: Madrid SCM” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1). 23 April 1991, XI ATSCM/2/Info 3 “Statement of the Head of the German Delegation regarding the problem on mineral resource activities (Art. 6 of the Andersen draft)” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-200).

  181. 181.

    24 April 1991, CE17408 “Media report on Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  182. 182.

    23 April 1991, Press Association “UK cold on ice park” The Mercury, 7. 23 April 1991, MA26828 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Second Session, Madrid, 22–30 April-Report No 1” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  183. 183.

    These were the Working Papers provided by the Netherlands (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-174), Japan (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-176) and Chile (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-180).

  184. 184.

    26 April 1991, MA26858 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid—Report No 4 (progress report)” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  185. 185.

    24 April 1991, XI ATSCM/2/WP24 “Swedish non-paper on draft Article 6” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-188). 26 April 1991, MA26858 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid—Report No 4 (progress report)” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1). 23–26 April 1991, “XI SCM (Session II)” (AWJ personal notes), 25–41.

  186. 186.

    26 April 1991, MA26858 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid—Report No 4 (progress report)” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1). 27 April 1991, “XI SCM (Session II)” (AWJ personal notes), 54–55.

  187. 187.

    25 May 1991, Katrina Iffland “World pact to put an end to using husky dogs in Antarctica” Canberra Times, 1.

  188. 188.

    Bowden, The Silence Calling: Australians in Antarctica 1947–1997, 418–20.

  189. 189.

    Patrick Moonie, “The Mawson Huskies: The Case for Retention,” Aurora (ANARE Club Journal) 11, no. 1 (1991): 1. For a typical expression of the sentiment, see 30 May 1991, Christelle Williams “Debate needed on polar dogs” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AU-351).

  190. 190.

    Shelagh Robinson, Huskies in Harness: A Love Story in Antarctica (Kangaroo Press, 1995), 7. See also: http://www.asoc.org/storage/documents/ECOs/1991/lxxx.3_atcm.pdf (accessed 3 February 2021).

  191. 191.

    Tom Maggs, personal communication, 20 September 2017.

  192. 192.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative, Madrid, 22–30 April 1991; 17–22 June 1991; 3–4 October 1991 (Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, 1991), 139.

  193. 193.

    This anomaly was fixed in 2009. See Antarctic Treaty, Measure 16 (2009) and Article 4 at: https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/433 (accessed 14 March 2020). The exclusion of sea ice derives from the treatment of high seas in the Treaty area. The status of sea ice was a long-standing issue—see, for example: https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM3/att/ATCM3_att001_e.pdf (accessed 14 March 2020).

  194. 194.

    25 April 1991, MA26853 “Antarctica: SCM XI Madrid: Minerals” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 1).

  195. 195.

    26 April 1991, MA26855 “Antarctic instrument: Minerals” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  196. 196.

    Note that Article 6 was later re-numbered to become the Madrid Protocol’s Article 7, which contains the mining prohibition.

  197. 197.

    26 April 1991, “XI SCM (Session II)—HODs” (AWJ personal notes), 53–55.

  198. 198.

    29 April 1991, MA26863 “Antarctica: SCMXI, Madrid—Report no. 5 (draft protocol)” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  199. 199.

    France preferred a requirement of 20 out of 26. 29 April 1991, MA26863 “Antarctica: SCMXI, Madrid—Report no. 5 (draft protocol)” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  200. 200.

    30 April 1991, MA26875 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid meeting: Report no. 6 (WG2: Annexes)” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  201. 201.

    30 April 1991, MA26874 “Antarctica: SCM XI, Madrid—Report no. 7 (final report)” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1). The form of instrument was still not agreed—the Madrid press release used the terms ‘protocol’, ‘instrument’, ‘comprehensive measures’ and ‘document’ interchangeably. See Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative, Madrid, 22–30 April 1991; 17–22 June 1991; 3–4 October 1991, 33.

  202. 202.

    30 April 1991, “XI SCM (Session II)—Plenary” (AWJ personal notes).

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Jackson, A. (2021). Negotiating an Environment Protocol: November 1990 to April 1991. In: Who Saved Antarctica? . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78405-8_7

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