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Antarctica’s Crisis of Consensus: May to October 1989

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Who Saved Antarctica?

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Abstract

In May 1989, the Australian government decided that it would not sign the Antarctic minerals convention but would pursue a mining ban in an Antarctic wilderness reserve. Australia had therefore reneged on the consensus on the minerals convention that had been achieved. This chapter covers the period from May to October 1989 when the shock and anger at Australia’s decision was revealed by its Treaty partners. France, however, was sympathetic and agreed with Australia to establish a joint working group on the environment. Collaboration was strengthened by the close personal connections between the Australian and French Prime Ministers. The challenges were substantial as, by mid-year, fourteen states had already signed the minerals convention, and even France had still not made a firm decision on signature. The initiation of a diplomatic campaign is covered, including efforts to convince other Parties to support a change of direction and agree to a Special Treaty meeting in the following year to explore the alternatives. The result was the breaking of once-strong bonds between traditional allies in the lead up to the October 1989 Treaty meeting.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    23 May 1989, CE721590 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  2. 2.

    23 May 1989, WH104403 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  3. 3.

    25 May 1989, WH104483 “Antarctica: Environmental protection: Minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  4. 4.

    24 May 1989, LH75039 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  5. 5.

    25 May 1989, letter from Heap to Mason (AHC London) “Prime Minister’s press conference, Canberra, 22 May 1989” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  6. 6.

    26 May 1989, CE723814 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  7. 7.

    22 May 1989, transcript of interview with Paul Lyneham, ABC TV 7.30 Report (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 1).

  8. 8.

    Quotes from a series of cablegrams (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  9. 9.

    23 May 1989, transcript of interview, ABC Radio The World Today (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  10. 10.

    24 May 1989, WL36835 “Protection of Antarctic environment: CRAMRA” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  11. 11.

    25 May 1989, WL36848 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  12. 12.

    26 May 1989, Oliver Ridell “Pique on ice pact—Bolger” Christchurch Press.

  13. 13.

    27 May 1989, John Kennedy “NZ’s line on Antarctica lacks popular support” The Age, 9.

  14. 14.

    30 May 1989, “NZ would back polar mining veto” Canberra Times, 4.

  15. 15.

    29 May 1989, transcript of interview, Radio NZ Good Morning NZ (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  16. 16.

    31 May 1989, “Briefing for visit to Australia by New Zealand Associate Minister for Foreign Affairs and Disarmament, Ms. Fran Wilde, calls on Senator Evans and Mr. Duffy” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  17. 17.

    29 May 1989, WL36870 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  18. 18.

    New Zealand’s internal deliberations are related in: Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 236 ff.

  19. 19.

    24 May 1989, Keith Scott “NZ criticism for park decision” Canberra Times, 14.

  20. 20.

    See, for example: 30 May 1989, Phillip Law, letters to the editor “Conservationists have exaggerated the risk” The Age, 12. June 1989, Australian Mining Industry Council information sheet “Exploration and mining in Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 89/932 PART 1).

  21. 21.

    23 May 1989, Australian Conservation Foundation news release “Antarctic decision is plainly visionary and based on a better view of the world” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2). 29 May 1989, Keith Scott “Breathing space for the last continent” Canberra Times, 9.

  22. 22.

    31 May 1989, ASOC (Evelyn Hurwich and Jim Barnes) letter to Senator Gore (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4). 2 June 1989, AAD handwritten minute “Discussion with Lyn Goldsworthy on ATCM issues” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  23. 23.

    1 June 1989, ST24758 and CE726628 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  24. 24.

    8 June 1989, BS47445 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  25. 25.

    7 June 1989, CE729682 “Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  26. 26.

    31 May 1989, CE725451 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  27. 27.

    1 June 1989, LH75684 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3). In Bundestag debates, the Greens Party, the Free Democratic Party and the Social Democratic Party supported Australia’s decision. 8 June 1989, BO45648 “Antarctica: Environmental protection—FRG” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  28. 28.

    6 June 1989, CE728526 “Antarctic: Comprehensive environmental protection: UK position” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  29. 29.

    7 June 1989, DFAT facsimile message “CRAMRA: UK legislation” covering a copy of “Antarctic Minerals Bill (HL)” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  30. 30.

    9 June 1989, LH76420 “Antarctic minerals convention: UK response to Australian position” (AAD: 76/133–3).

  31. 31.

    “Antarctic Antics,” New Scientist 122, no. 1667 (1989).

  32. 32.

    5 June 1989, WH104900 “Protection of Antarctic environment: Minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  33. 33.

    7 June 1989, WH105050 “Antarctic minerals convention” (AAD: 84/360–2).

  34. 34.

    13 June 1989, WH105287 “Antarctic mineral convention: US: Prime Minister’s visit” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  35. 35.

    8 June 1989, aide-memoire “The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Minerals Resources Activities: The United States view”. In: August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199).

  36. 36.

    14 June 1989, CE732751 “Protection of Antarctic environment—US views” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  37. 37.

    16 June 1989, CE734483 “Protection of Antarctic environment: Minerals” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  38. 38.

    14 June 1989, MS37598 “Protection of the Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  39. 39.

    5 June 1989, KL117732 “Malaysia: Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  40. 40.

    8 June 1989, Aide memoire “The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Minerals Resources Activities: The United States view”. Reproduced in: August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199).

  41. 41.

    1 June 1989, ND69064 “Protection of the Antarctic environment: Indian views” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  42. 42.

    Reproduced in: August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199).

  43. 43.

    16 June 1989, CH543717 “Transcript of news conference given by the Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade, Senator Evans, New Delhi on 9 June 1989” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  44. 44.

    10 June 1989, Lindsay Murdoch “India backs plan on Antarctic park” The Age, 6.

  45. 45.

    6 June 1989, ND69162 “Antarctica: Comprehensive environmental protection: India” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  46. 46.

    12 June 1989, ND69271 “India: Minister Evans visit: Conversation with Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  47. 47.

    8 June 1989, WL36986 “Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  48. 48.

    12 June 1989, letter from Marshall to Evans reproduced in: August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199).

  49. 49.

    14 June 1989, WL37041 “Protection of the Antarctic environment: Minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  50. 50.

    15 June 1989, letter from Hawke to Lange reproduced in: August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199).

  51. 51.

    1 June 1989, DASETT brief to minister “Further response from France on Australia’s CRAMRA position” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  52. 52.

    6 June 1989, PA74734 “Protection of Antarctic environment—French MFA views” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  53. 53.

    6 June 1989, PA74744 “Antarctica: Cousteau” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  54. 54.

    8 June 1989, PA74790 “Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  55. 55.

    10 June 1989, Foundation Cousteau report “Pour la Sauvegarde du Milieu Antarctique. Mission Confiee par le President de la Republique au Commandant Cousteau—Premiers Propositions”. Reproduced in: August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199).

  56. 56.

    14 June 1989, PA74901 “Antarctica: Mitterrand’s support for wilderness reserve”. Reproduced in: August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199). 15 June 1989 “Mitterrand supports Antarctic park plan” The Age, 8.

  57. 57.

    2 June 1989, Attorney-General’s Department memorandum “Antarctic environment protection paper” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  58. 58.

    6 June 1989, Antarctic Division minute “Comments on the paper by AGS” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  59. 59.

    9 June 1989, CE730880 “Protection of Antarctic environment: Minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  60. 60.

    13 June 1989, Attorney-General’s Department paper “Summary of principles underlying the Australian proposal for the protection of the Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  61. 61.

    15 June 1989, Victoria Thieberger “Hawke to push stand on Antarctic overseas” The Age, 16.

  62. 62.

    15 June 1989, CE733362 letter from Hawke to Rocard reproduced in: August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199).

  63. 63.

    Hawke, The Hawke Memoirs, 470. Hôtel de Matignon is the official residence of the French Prime Minister.

  64. 64.

    20 June 1989, LH77261 “France: Prime Minister’s visit: Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  65. 65.

    17 June 1989, Prime Minister “Transcript of news conference, Paris Air Show” http://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/release/transcript-7643 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  66. 66.

    Woolcott, The Hot Seat: Reflections on Diplomacy from Stalin’s Death to the Bali Bombings, 214. Woolcott, Secretary of DFAT, had led defence of the ATS in the UN. Cousteau’s reference to “fifty years” turned out to be prophetic given the Protocol’s review provisions.

  67. 67.

    20 June 1989, LH77261 “France: Prime Minister’s visit: Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4. The meeting of officials was attended, on the Australian side, by Woolcott and Hawke adviser Craig Emerson.

  68. 68.

    21 June 1989, PA75007 “Antarctica—Rocard comments” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  69. 69.

    20 June 1989, LH77261 “France: Prime Minister’s visit: Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  70. 70.

    21 June 1989, PA75005 “Antarctica: French MFA views” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  71. 71.

    19 June 1989, Nikki Savva “Australia-France in Antarctic park push” Adelaide Advertiser, 1. 19 June 1989, Michelle Grattan “France backs Australia on Antarctic wilderness” The Age, 4.

  72. 72.

    23 June 1989, PA75041 “The Prime Minister’s visit to France, 17–20 June 1989” (AAD: 81/346–3).

  73. 73.

    d’Alpuget, Bob Hawke: The Complete Biography, 803.

  74. 74.

    The June 1989 meetings in Paris started an enduring close relationship between Hawke and Rocard. 9 July 2016, Nick O’Malley “Clout in the cold together” The Age, 25.

  75. 75.

    16 June 1989, AT38023 “Antarctic minerals convention” and VI50292 “Antarctic minerals convention: Austria” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  76. 76.

    16 June 1989, BS47490 “Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  77. 77.

    17 June 1989, ST24864 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4). Sweden had already signed CRAMRA, but said it would not ratify it for at least a year.

  78. 78.

    29 June 1989, ST24944 “Protection of Antarctic environment: Interview with Senator Evans” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  79. 79.

    22 June 1989, BS47544 “Protection of the Antarctic environment: Minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  80. 80.

    See, for example: Federal Republic of Germany’s view in 17 June 1989, BO45798 “Protection of Antarctic environment”; Sweden’s views in 17 June 1989, ST24863 “Protection of Antarctic environment”; and Chile’s view in 19 June 1989, SC19556 “Protection of the Antarctic environment: Minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  81. 81.

    16 June 1989, CE734483 “Protection of Antarctic environment: Minerals” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4).

  82. 82.

    21 June 1989, David Mason AHC London minute “Antarctic minerals convention: UK views on Australia’s initiative” (AAD: B13/199).

  83. 83.

    21 June 1989, FCO Polar Regions Section “Antarctic minerals convention: A memorandum” (AAD: B13/199).

  84. 84.

    29 June 1989, Cablegram LH77976 “Senator Evans’ discussions in London” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  85. 85.

    21 June 1989, WH105651 “Protection of Antarctic environment: Minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1). Lobbying of Congressman had occurred, but not at the Australia’s instigation. Democrat Congressman Bruce Vento had already “expressed his pleasure at the Australian decision”. 21 June 1989, WH105622 “Antarctica: Minerals convention: Congressional interest” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  86. 86.

    26 June 1989, Milton Cockburn “US rejects Hawke’s Antarctica plan” Sydney Morning Herald, 1. The President’s reply to Hawke had been strongly influenced by Scott Hajost, a US CRAMRA negotiator. 13 November 1989, UN048479 “Antarctica: Tinker Seminar, New York, 10 September” (NAA: B1387 89/932 PART 1).

  87. 87.

    26 June 1989, WH105799 “Transcript of news conference, Blair House, Washington, 25 June 1989” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  88. 88.

    26 June 1989, Geoff Keeney “US stand on Antarctic may spur anti-mining option” Financial Review, 5.

  89. 89.

    6 July 1989, WH106138 “Record of conversation between Prime Minister and Congressman Jones with other members of Congress” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  90. 90.

    21 June 1989, TH21638 “Protection of Antarctic Environment—minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  91. 91.

    6 July 1989, WH106136 “Record of conversation between Prime Minister and Senator Gore” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  92. 92.

    28 June 1989, editorial “Hawke’s icy reception” The Australian, 10.

  93. 93.

    5 July 1989, Prime Minister, transcript of news conference. http://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/release/transcript-7669 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  94. 94.

    4 July 1989, transcript of interview, Senator Richardson on 7HT radio (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  95. 95.

    3 July 1989, “Transcript of press conference. New Zealand Deputy Prime Minister & Minister for the Environment, Hon Geoff Palmer. Australian Minister for the Environment, Senator Graham Richardson, Wellington, New Zealand” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  96. 96.

    3 July 1989, Rex Moncur file note “Telephone call to Minister in New Zealand” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  97. 97.

    4 July 1989, United Kingdom, House of Commons Hansard, 216–218. http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1989/jul/04/antarctic-minerals-bill-lords (accessed 3 February 2021).

  98. 98.

    6 July 1989, LH78414 “Antarctica: An end to bipartisan support for British policy” (AAD: 76/133–3).

  99. 99.

    9 July 1989, LH78504 “Antarctica: Environment protection” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  100. 100.

    July 1989, United Kingdom, House of Commons Hansard, 218–229. http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1989/jul/04/antarctic-minerals-bill-lords (accessed 3 February 2021).

  101. 101.

    11 July 1989, LH78796 “Antarctica: British position” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  102. 102.

    Andrew Jackson, “Australia Calls for a Wilderness Reserve,” ANARE News, no. 59 (1989): 6.

  103. 103.

    Prime Minister, Our Country Our Future: Statement on the Environment / the Hon R J L Hawke, Prime Minister of Australia, July 1989 (AGPS, 1989), 26–27.

  104. 104.

    9 August 1989, ST25146 “Protection of the Antarctic environment: Sweden and Norway” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2). The Ambassador was Ian Nicholson, Australia’s leader in the CRAMRA negotiations.

  105. 105.

    7 August 1989, CE758073 “Antarctica—Indian views” (AAD: 89/578–1).

  106. 106.

    14 July 1989, WH106442 “Protection of Antarctic environment: US views” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  107. 107.

    9 August 1989, Richard Owen “Australia opposed Antarctic treaty through self-interest” The Australian, 5. 18 July 1989 “US aims to mine Antarctica” The Australian, 8.

  108. 108.

    11 July 1989, PA75294 “Prime Minister’s meeting with President Mitterrand: Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  109. 109.

    In 1989, the G7 comprised Canada, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States and European Union. France hosted the summit in Paris, 14–16 July. 7 July 1989, CE744793 “Letter from Prime Minister to President Mitterand: Antarctica”, in: August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199).

  110. 110.

    17 July 1989, “Core Group” (AWJ personal notes).

  111. 111.

    19 July 1989, CE749941 “Australia/France Joint Working Group on Environment and Antarctic”, reproduced in: August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199).

  112. 112.

    24 July 1989, letter from Hawke to Duffy (AAD: 89/578–1). Sir Ninian was Australia’s first environment ambassador: 20 July 1989, “Speech by the Prime Minister” http://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/original/00007687.pdf (accessed 28 January 2021).

  113. 113.

    28 July 1989, DFAT memorandum “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment: Briefing requirements” (AAD: 89/578–1). 31 July 1989, author’s handwritten notes during inter-departmental meeting (AAD: 89/578–1). Philip Ayres, Fortunate Voyager: The Worlds of Ninian Stephen (Miegunyah, 2013), 132–36.

  114. 114.

    30 July 1989, PA75679 “Australia/France Joint Working Group on Environment and Antarctica” (AAD: 89/578–1). 3 August 1989, AAD minute “Comments on French draft” (AAD: 89/578–1).

  115. 115.

    See, for example: 9 August 1989, AAD note to file “Conversation with Mr. Doran, DFAT” and accompanying “Aide memoire”; and related memorandums between 4 and 10 August 1989 (AAD: 89/578–1).

  116. 116.

    August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199) Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199).

  117. 117.

    10 August 1989, French Foreign Minister’s response to Parliamentary question (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  118. 118.

    9 August 1989, PA75937 “France/Australia Working Group on Environment: Antarctica” (AAD: 89/578–1).

  119. 119.

    17 August 1989, CE763486 “French/Australian Working Group on the Environment: Antarctica” (AAD: 89/578–1).

  120. 120.

    28 July 1989, letter from Hawke to Rocard reproduced in: August 1989, “Australia/France Joint Working Group on the Environment and Antarctica 7–9 August 1989. First meeting Antarctic brief” (AAD: B13/199).

  121. 121.

    18 August 1989, “Joint Statement on International Environment Issues Agreed by Prime Ministers Hawke and Rocard, Canberra, 18 August 1989. 18 August 1989, CH551922 “Antarctica: Hawke/Rocard joint statement” (AAD: 89/578–1).

  122. 122.

    7 September 1989, memorandum from the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet covering “Record of conversation between the Prime Minister, the Hon RJL Hawke, and the Prime Minister of France, Mr. Michel Rocard: 18 August 1989, 10:15 am, Parliament House” (AAD: 89/578–1).

  123. 123.

    New Zealand hoped that France might accede to CRAMRA and leave Australia isolated. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 249.

  124. 124.

    18 August 1989, CE764077 “Protection of Antarctic environment: Joint French-Australian initiative” (AAD: 89/578–1). 20 August 1989, editorial “Not yet quite an entente cordiale” Canberra Times, 6.

  125. 125.

    10 July 1989, WL37297 “Protection of the Antarctic environment: New Zealand Opposition policy” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1). 4 August 1989, Hon J. B. Bolger address to the Environment and Conservation Organisations of New Zealand Conference, Wellington (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  126. 126.

    8 August 1989, WL37627 “Protection of the Antarctic environment: New Zealand Opposition view” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  127. 127.

    New Zealand, “White Paper on Antarctic Environment. Laid on the Table of the House of Representatives, August 1989,” (Government Printer Wellington, 1989).

  128. 128.

    9 August 1989, New Zealand Prime Minister “Press Statement” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  129. 129.

    9 August 1989, New Zealand Prime Minister, transcript of press conference (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  130. 130.

    9 August 1989, Cath Wallace, “Analysis of the New Zealand Government’s White Paper on Antarctic Environment” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2). 10 August 1989 “White Paper disappoints Greenpeace” Evening Post (New Zealand).

  131. 131.

    11 August 1989, CE760565 “Comprehensive protection of Antarctic environment—NZ position” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  132. 132.

    24 August 1989, AAD note to file “Conversation with Brendan Doran DFAT” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  133. 133.

    For an example, see 18 August 1989, CE764086 “Prime Minister’s correspondence: Antarctic initiative” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  134. 134.

    22 August 1989, Delegation of Chile “Working paper” ANT./XV./WP./ (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  135. 135.

    23 August 1989, Department of Foreign Affairs (Bill Bush) “Comments on paper circulated by the Chilean Mission to the United Nations at New York on 22 August” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  136. 136.

    22 August 1989, “France-Australian Draft Working Paper on possible components for a comprehensive convention for the preservation and protection of Antarctica”; “A Joint Australian/French proposal in the form of a paper including a draft Recommendation for ATCM XV—Comprehensive measures for the protection of the Antarctic environment and its dependent and associated ecosystems”; and “Aide-Memoire: Comprehensive Convention to Protect the Antarctic Environment: Joint Franco-Australian proposal to the Antarctic Treaty Parties” (AAD: 89/578–1).

  137. 137.

    22 August 1989, UN047592 “Antarctica: Comprehensive environmental protection initiative” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  138. 138.

    23 August 1989, ST25199 “Protection of the Antarctic environment: Sweden” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  139. 139.

    29 August 1989, SC19818 “Antarctica—Australian/French initiative: Chilean views” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  140. 140.

    31 August 1989, BA34047 “Antarctica Australian French initiative” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  141. 141.

    August 1989, letter from Foreign Minister Gareth Evans to Prime Minister Bob Hawke (AAD: 89/133–2).

  142. 142.

    13 September 1989, speech by the Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade to the National Press Club “The style of Australian foreign policy” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AU-290), 12–13.

  143. 143.

    30 August 1989, CE768728 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/932 PART 1). 21 September 1989, MA24703 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  144. 144.

    30 August 1989, CE769065 “Environment: Visit of Ambassador Stephen” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  145. 145.

    September 1989, UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office, “Background brief: The Antarctic minerals convention and its role in protecting the Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 1991/55 PART 2).

  146. 146.

    John A. Heap and Martin W. Holdgate, “The Antarctic Treaty System as an Environmental Mechanism,” in Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment (National Academy Press, 1986), 197.

  147. 147.

    15 September 1989, LH84221 “Protection of Antarctic environment: Australian and French representations” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  148. 148.

    27 September 1989, LH85216 “Antarctica: Franco/Australian representations” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  149. 149.

    25 September 1989, Department of Foreign Affairs facsimile covering Dougie Patel’s internal report on NGO consultations at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (AAD: 89/133–1).

  150. 150.

    12 September 1989, WH108590 “Protection of Antarctic environment: US Senate hearing” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3). 13 September 1989, Deborah Hope “Antarctica: US thinks we’ll cave in” Sydney Morning Herald, 1.

  151. 151.

    13 September 1989, CE776118 “Transcript Senator Evans at the Press Club 13.9.89” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  152. 152.

    13 September 1989, Prime Minister, transcript of news conference http://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/original/00007739.pdf (accessed 3 February 2021).

  153. 153.

    This was unusual as France was generally reluctant to make joint representations. See 5 September 1989, PA76409 “Protection of Antarctic environment—France” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  154. 154.

    15 September 1989, WH108745 “Protection of the Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  155. 155.

    18 September 1989, WH108792 “Protection of Antarctic environment: US views” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3). A formal Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (SATCM), with the decision-making authority of a full ATCM, would give the issues significant status.

  156. 156.

    19 September 1989, WH108845 “Protection of Antarctic environment: US” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

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    25 September 1989, Malcolm W Browne “France and Australia kill pact on limited Antarctic mining and oil drilling”. New York Times, 2. See http://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/25/world/france-and-australia-kill-pact-on-limited-antarctic-mining-and-oil-drilling.html (accessed 3 February 2021).

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    20 September 1989, PA76733 “Antarctica—Wellington Convention—interview with Cousteau (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

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    20 September 1989, WH108862 “Protection of Antarctic environment: Cousteau in Washington” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  160. 160.

    22 September 1989 “Cousteau wins bid to block Antarctic treaty” The Australian, 8.

  161. 161.

    26 September 1989, WH109114 “Antarctica—Senator Gore” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3). This was Senate Resolution 206: “A joint resolution calling for the United States to encourage immediate negotiations toward a new agreement among Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties, for the full protection of Antarctica as a global ecological commons”. It achieved presidential signature on 16 November 1989 https://www.congress.gov/bill/101st-congress/senate-joint-resolution/206 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  162. 162.

    29 September 1989, CH557600 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  163. 163.

    28 September 1989, Senate Hansard, 1481–1482.

  164. 164.

    29 September 1989, WH109247 “Antarctica—US Government views” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  165. 165.

    3 October 1989, WH109324 “Antarctica: Call on Senator Gore” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  166. 166.

    8 September 1989, BO46791 “Environment—Antarctica: Visit to Bonn by Sir Ninian Stephen” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  167. 167.

    21 September 1989, CE779272 “Protection of Antarctic environment—Japanese views” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3). 2 October 1989, TK65493 “Protection of the Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  168. 168.

    5 September 1989, PA76409 “Protection of Antarctic environment—France” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  169. 169.

    21 September 1989, CE779017 “Environment: Antarctic: Joint initiative” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  170. 170.

    Article 8 of CRAMRA provided for a separate liability protocol, and SATCM IV’s Final Act agreed the work should begin “at an early stage”. Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Fourth Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Mineral Resources, 36–42.

  171. 171.

    20 September 1989, PA76731 “Antarctica—French views” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3). 22 September 1989, PA76777 “Antarctica—discussions with the French” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  172. 172.

    18 September 1989, WL38065 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  173. 173.

    19 September 1989, WL38092 “Protection of Antarctic environment” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  174. 174.

    21 September 1989, WL38119 “Antarctic: Australia/New Zealand positions” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  175. 175.

    27 September 1989, WL38182 “Antarctic environmental protection: ATCM XV: New Zealand paper” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  176. 176.

    October 1989, V/ATCM/WP/4 (New Zealand) “Working Paper on the protection of the Antarctic environment” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM15/wp/ATCM15_wp004_e.pdf (accessed 16 March 2020).

  177. 177.

    5 October 1989, CE785093 “Protection of the Antarctic environment: US paper” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  178. 178.

    29 September 1989, CH557712 “Antarctica: Prime Ministerial correspondence” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  179. 179.

    6 October 1989, BR12070 “Environment: Peru: Protection of the Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  180. 180.

    4 October 1989, CE784032 “Environment: Antarctic—Italy” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  181. 181.

    3 October 1989, Greenpeace Australia facsimile “Testimony on CRAMRA in France” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  182. 182.

    Gary Shigenaka, Twenty-Five Years after the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: NOAA’s Scientific Support, Monitoring and Research (US Department of Commerce, 2014), 8–10.

  183. 183.

    29 September 1989, Keith Scott “Leak fuels hope for a wilderness park” Canberra Times, 2. 16 October 1989, Senate Hansard, 1869.

  184. 184.

    October 1989, “15th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Paris, 9–19 October 1989” (AAD: B13/192–1).

  185. 185.

    These included the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, Norway, China and the German Democratic Republic.

  186. 186.

    6 October 1989, PA77015 “Antarctica: Pre-ATCM XV meeting” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  187. 187.

    “The Antarctic Treaty”. Art XII.2(a).

  188. 188.

    October 1989, “15th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Paris, 9–19 October 1989” (AAD: B13/192–1).

  189. 189.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Fifteeenth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Paris, 9–20 October 1989 (Imprimerie Nationale, 1989), 124–29.

  190. 190.

    10 October 1989, PA77056 “Antarctica: ATCM XV, Paris, 9–20 October—Report No 1 (Opening)” (AAD: 89/133–1). Official opening addresses are the only public session of an ATCM.

  191. 191.

    Alan Brown, “Antarctic Treaty Meeting in Paris,” Australian Foreign Affairs and Trade: the Monthly Record 60, no. 10 (1989).

  192. 192.

    10 October 1989, PA77056 “Antarctica: ATCM XV, Paris, 9–20 October—Report No 1 (Opening)” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  193. 193.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Fifteeenth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Paris, 9–20 October 1989, 208–10.

  194. 194.

    Transcript of ABC TV news segment reproduced in: 9 October 1989, CE78616 “Antarctica: ATCM XV” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  195. 195.

    Phillip Law, “Antarctic Wilderness: A Wild Idea,” The Bulletin (1989).

  196. 196.

    Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, “Antarctica at the Crossroads,” ECO LXXIV, no. 1 (1989).

  197. 197.

    October 1989, XV ATCM/WP/2 “A Joint Australia/French Proposal in the form of a Paper including a Draft Recommendation for ATCM XV—Comprehensive Measures for the Protection of the Antarctic Environment and its Dependent and Associated Ecosystems” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM15/wp/ATCM15_wp002_e.pdf (accessed 27 March 2020). October 1989, XV ATCM/WP/3 “Franco-Australia DRAFT Working Paper on Possible Components for a Comprehensive Convention for the Preservation and Protection of Antarctica” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM15/wp/ATCM15_wp003_e.pdf (accessed 27 March 2020).

  198. 198.

    October 1989, XV ATCM/WP/7 “Working Paper Submitted by the Delegation of Chile” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM15/wp/ATCM15_wp007_e.pdf (accessed 27 March 2020).

  199. 199.

    11 October 1989, “ATCM XV” (AWJ personal notes), 13–22.

  200. 200.

    9 November 1989 “New Zealand sides with the miners” ASOC Antarctic News, 1 (AU-ATADD-5-BB-GE-136).

  201. 201.

    October 1989, XV ATCM/WP/23 (UK) “Draft Recommendation on Protection of the Antarctic Environment and of its Dependent and Associated Ecosystems” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM15/wp/ATCM15_wp023_e.pdf (accessed 28 March 2020).

  202. 202.

    13 October 1989, “ATCM XV” (AWJ personal notes), 35–44.

  203. 203.

    16 October 1989, PA77156 “Antarctica: ATCM XV, Paris, 9–20 October—Report No 3” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  204. 204.

    16 October 1989, “Antarctica as a park” Los Angeles Times, quoted in 16 October 1989, LO25293 “Antarctic—editorial comment” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  205. 205.

    16 October 1989, PA77156 “Antarctica: ATCM XV, Paris, 9–20 October—Report No 3” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  206. 206.

    October 1989, Rex Moncur, DASETT internal minutes “Antarctic Treaty meeting—Day Five” and “Antarctic Treaty meeting—Day Six” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  207. 207.

    Jackson and Boyce, “Mining and ‘World Park Antarctica’,” 256.

  208. 208.

    18 October 1989, PA77195 “Antarctica: ATCM XV, Paris, 9–20 October—Report No 4” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  209. 209.

    19 October 1989, PA77212 “Antarctica: ATCM XV, Paris, 9–20 October—Report No 5” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  210. 210.

    Quoted in: 20 October 1989 “United States, Britain defeat Antarctic park plan” Reuters. Reproduced in 30 October 1989 DFAT facsimile “British and US press articles on ATCM XV” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  211. 211.

    19 October 1989, PA77212 “Antarctica: ATCM XV, Paris, 9–20 October—Report No 5” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  212. 212.

    Antarctic Treaty, Recommendation ATCM XV-1 (1989) “Comprehensive measures for the protection of the Antarctic environment and Dependent and Associated Ecosystems” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/170 (accessed 28 March 2020).

  213. 213.

    Antarctic Treaty, Recommendation ATCM XV-2 (1989) “Comprehensive measures for the protection of the Antarctic environment and Dependent and Associated Ecosystems” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/171 (accessed 28 March 2020).

  214. 214.

    21 October 1989, PA77239 “Antarctica: ATCM XV, Paris, 9–20 October—Report No 6” (AAD: 89/133–1).

  215. 215.

    October 1989, Andrew Jackson “Antarctic Treaty Meeting, October 1989, Report on Attendance” (AAD: 89/133–1). January 1990, “Report on Overseas Visit—Rex Moncur, 2–27 October 1989” (AAD: 89/133–2).

  216. 216.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Fifteeenth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Paris, 9–20 October 1989, 43–115.

  217. 217.

    ibid., 16.

  218. 218.

    Antarctic Treaty, Recommendation ATCM XV-1 (1989) “Comprehensive system for the protection of the Antarctic environment” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/170 (accessed 28 March 2020).

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    Andrew Jackson

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Jackson, A. (2021). Antarctica’s Crisis of Consensus: May to October 1989. In: Who Saved Antarctica? . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78405-8_5

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