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Negotiating a Minerals Convention: June 1982 to June 1988

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Who Saved Antarctica?

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Abstract

Having successfully addressed regulation on the use of Antarctica’s fish and other marine living resources, in June 1982 the Antarctic Treaty Parties commenced work on the problematic issue of regulating mineral resources. This was challenging because of the links to sovereignty, differing views on access and the concern for the rights of territorial claimants. The Treaty Parties engaged in formal negotiations to find a compromise on minerals, with a view to finalising regulations before resources were encountered. Dealing with the political, legal and environmental issues ended in June 1988 with consensus on the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities. The outcome was facilitated by inspired leadership from New Zealand lawyer and diplomat Chris Beeby, and pressure was removed by agreeing to refrain from minerals activities while progress was made. No state was entirely happy with the final result, including Australia, which was widely seen as one of the Parties most dissatisfied. Nevertheless, consensus was achieved and the convention could proceed towards signature. The chapter sets the scene for the eruption of doubts about what had been agreed and the question of Antarctica’s future.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    June 1982, “Chairman’s summary of the most significant elements of agreement recorded in Recommendation XI-1” (NAA: B1387 1982/230 PART 2).

  2. 2.

    Emphasis on the environment became a hallmark of New Zealand policy. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, passim.

  3. 3.

    June 1982, “Chairman’s proposal for a structure for the discussion of Agenda Item 5 on the elaboration of a regime” (NAA: B1387 1982/230 PART 2).

  4. 4.

    19 June 1982, WL12807 “Antarctic mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 96/896).

  5. 5.

    June 1982, “Australian negotiating position” (NAA: B1387 89/592).

  6. 6.

    June 1982, AMR/SCM/7 (Australia) “Summary of a regime for Antarctic mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 89/592). 23 July 1982, Antarctic Division minute to Deputy Secretary “Items of interest of the 4th Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Mineral Resources” (NAA: B1387 89/592). Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 130.

  7. 7.

    22 June 1982, Minute Department of Science and Technology “Antarctic minerals meeting and discussions with the Australian Mining Industry Council” (NAA: B1387 89/592).

  8. 8.

    14 July 1982, Memorandum from Department of Science “Evolution of draft paragraphs for inclusion in the report of the First Session of the 4th Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting” (NAA: B1387 89/592).

  9. 9.

    18 June 1982 and 21 June 1982 “An Antarctic minerals regime: Environmental aspects. Note by John Heap on a discussion held between interested members of delegations” (NAA: B1387 1982/230 PART 1).

  10. 10.

    12 May 1982, David Evans “Campaign for world park in Antarctica”, The Australian, 5. James N Barnes and Eliot Porter, Let’s Save Antarctica! (Greenhouse Publications, 1982).

  11. 11.

    25 June 1982, AMR/SCM/21 Rev.1/Corr.1 “Report of the First Session of the Special Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Mineral Resources, Wellington, 14–25 June 1982” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-1).

  12. 12.

    23 June 1982, AMR/SCM/10 “Skeleton for an instrument on Antarctic mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 89/592). “Schema for an instrument on Antarctic mineral resources” in: 25 June 1982, AMR/SCM/21 Rev.1/Corr.1 “Report of the First Session of the Special Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Mineral Resources, Wellington, 14–25 June 1982” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-1), Annex B.

  13. 13.

    23 July 1982, Antarctic Division minute to Deputy Secretary “Items of interest of the 4th Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Mineral Resources” (NAA: B1387 89/592).

  14. 14.

    June 1982, AMR/SCM/8 (Argentina) “Legal nature of Antarctic ice” (NAA: B1387 1982/230 PART 2).

  15. 15.

    Participants included Chris Beeby (NZ), Keith Brennan (Australia), Tore Gjelsvik (Norway), Roberto Guyer (Argentina), John Heap (UK), Tucker Scully (US) and Fernando Zegers (Chile). Francisco Orrego Vicuña, ed. Antarctic Resources Policy: Scientific Legal and Political Issues (Cambridge University Press, 1983).

  16. 16.

    Rüdiger Wolfrum and Klaus Bockslaff, eds., Antarctic Challenge: Conflicting Interests, Cooperation, Environmental Protection, Economic Development: Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Symposium, June 22nd-24th, 1983 (Duncker & Humblot, 1984), 8.

  17. 17.

    January 1983, meeting document ANT (83) MR/17. 29 March 1984, “Informal personal report of the Chairman of the Working Group on Antarctic Mineral Resources” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-244), in which ‘Beeby I’ was presented alongside ‘Beeby II’.

  18. 18.

    Beeby’s thinking is in: Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 132–33.

  19. 19.

    Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, “Antarctic Minerals Regime: Beeby’s Slick Solution,” ECO XXIII, no. 1, 11–22 July 1983 (1983).

  20. 20.

    21 January 1983, WL14882 “Antarctica—reported military activity” (NAA: B1387 1981/342).

  21. 21.

    Lloyd Robson, A History of Tasmania (Volume 2) (Oxford University Press, 1991), 555–79. Greg Buckman, Tasmania’s Wilderness Battles: A History (Allen & Unwin, 2008), 56–61. Gareth Evans, “The Background Politics of the Tasmanian Dam Case,” in The Tasmanian Dam Case 30 Years On, ed. Michael Coper, Heather Roberts, and James Stellios (Federation Press, 2017). Wilderness: Celebrating Australia’s Protected Places (The Wilderness Society Tasmania, 2018), 25–28.

  22. 22.

    20 June 1983, Cabinet Submission 250 “Australian objectives in Antarctic minerals negotiations” (NAA: A13977, 250).

  23. 23.

    13 July 1983, Cabinet Decision 923 “Australian objectives in Antarctic minerals negotiations” (NAA: A13977, 250).

  24. 24.

    For the Bonn meeting, the paper was re-numbered as meeting document ANT 83/IV SCM 2nd Sess/2.

  25. 25.

    July 1983, ANT 83/IV SCM 2nd Sess/7 “Report of the second formal session of the Special Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Mineral Resources, Bonn 11–22 July 1983” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-3). Despite its title and numbering, this report relates to what became referred to as the third session, the distinction between formal and informal sessions having been removed.

  26. 26.

    Antarctic Treaty, Report of the Twelfth Consultative Meeting, Canberra, 13–27 September 1983 (Australian Government Publishing Service, 1983), 18–19.

  27. 27.

    Iceberg harvesting had become subject to serious speculation. A. A. Husseiny, ed. Iceberg Utilization (Pergamon, 1978). Peter Schwerdtfeger, “On Icebergs and Their Uses,” Cold Regions Science and Technology 1, no. 1 (1979).

  28. 28.

    M. G. Haward and D. Mason, “Australia, the United Nations and the Question of Antarctica,” in Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System: 50 Years of Influence, ed. Marcus Haward and Tom Griffiths (UNSW Press, 2011).

  29. 29.

    Ibid., 216.

  30. 30.

    Australia was one of the early delegations to do this, including Annette Horsler of Fund for Animals.

  31. 31.

    2 June 1983, Senate Hansard, 1154.

  32. 32.

    17 January 1983, “French in Antarctic: Airstrip plans called threat to wildlife” Canberra Times. 17 June 1983, PA11845 “Antarctica: French airstrip” (AAD: 81/346–1).

  33. 33.

    John May, ed. The Greenpeace Book of Antarctica (Child & Associates, 1988), 136–37.

  34. 34.

    12 September 1983, ANT/XII/1/REV 1 (Australia) “Agreed measures for the protection of the Antarctic environment: Interim guidelines—draft UK recommendation” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM12/wp/ATCM12_wp001_rev1_e.pdf (accessed 17 March 2020).

  35. 35.

    26 September 1983, ANT/XII/6/CORR 1 “Man’s impact on the Antarctic environment” (AU-ATADD-3-BB-AQ-644). This Australian proposal was not for a world park—see 4 October 1983, House of Representatives Hansard, 1321.

  36. 36.

    29 March 1984, MR/17 Revision “Informal personal report of the Chairman of the Working Group on Antarctic Mineral Resources” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-244).

  37. 37.

    April 1984, “Summary record of discussions between British and Australian officials on Antarctic minerals negotiations, Canberra 11–12 April 1984” (NAA: B1387 1981/351C).

  38. 38.

    3 May 1984, Cabinet Submission 746 “Australian objectives in Antarctic minerals negotiations” (NAA: A13977, 746).

  39. 39.

    7 May 1984, Cabinet Decision 3180 “Australian objectives in Antarctic minerals negotiations” (NAA: A13977, 746).

  40. 40.

    18 June 1984, WL19815 “Antarctica minerals meeting” (NAA: B1387 1981/343 PART 2).

  41. 41.

    21 September 1984, brief to Minister for Science and Technology “Antarctic minerals regime—informal discussions 17–20 September 1984” (NAA: B1387 1981/351C).

  42. 42.

    John C. Behrendt, “Are There Petroleum Resources in Antarctica?” in Antarctic Politics and Marine Resources, ed. Lewis M. Alexander and Lynne Carter Hanson (University of Rhode Island, 1985), 191.

  43. 43.

    John N. Garrett, “The Economics of Antarctic Oil,” ibid., 190.

  44. 44.

    Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, “Beeby II: On the Right Track? But in the Wrong Direction?” ECO XXVIII, no. 2, 22–31 May 1984 (1984). Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 185.

  45. 45.

    24 October 1984 “Antarctic draft ‘unworkable’” New Zealand Herald.

  46. 46.

    31 October 1984, WL21304 “Antarctica: New Zealand” (NAA: B1387 1981/343 PART 2).

  47. 47.

    26 September 1984, letter from John Heap to Department of Foreign Affairs “Antarctic minerals: Objectives and principles” (NAA: B1387 1984/481 PART 1). This is an early example of a Correspondents’ Group letter.

  48. 48.

    10 February 1984, “Australia neglecting Antarctic environment” Canberra Times, 9. 31 October 1984, CH236857 “Antarctica: Airstrip at Dumont d’Urville” (NAA: B1387 88/159).

  49. 49.

    This was done, in part, to demonstrate the difficulties of working in Antarctica. Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment (National Academy Press, 1986), 3–4.

  50. 50.

    Ibid., 269–302.

  51. 51.

    February 1985, “Brief for the Australian delegation to the Special Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Minerals, Rio de Janeiro 26 February to 8 March 1985” (AAD: B13/190).

  52. 52.

    15 March 1985, LO14743 “Antarctic minerals negotiations” (NAA: B1387 91/262).

  53. 53.

    26 March 1985, WL2285 “Antarctica: Minerals meeting in Rio de Janeiro” (NAA: B1387 91/262).

  54. 54.

    15 April 1985, LE26482 “Antarctica: Minerals negotiations” (NAA: B1387 91/262).

  55. 55.

    27 March 1985, Department of Foreign Affairs memorandum M.CH215981 “Antarctic minerals” (NAA: B1387 91/262).

  56. 56.

    25 April 1985, William Mansfield “Who has the right of exploitation, and the right to prevent exploitation, of the minerals of Antarctica?” Address to the American Society of International Law (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-18).

  57. 57.

    19 April 1985, Department of Foreign Affairs memorandum M.CH217324 “Antarctic minerals: Chairman’s non-paper on key issues” (NAA: B1387 91/262).

  58. 58.

    25 April 1985, BS20920 “Antarctic minerals” (NAA: B1387 91/262).

  59. 59.

    M. J. Whiticar, E. Suess, and H. Wehner, “Thermogenic Hydrocarbons in Surface Sediments of the Bransfield Strait, Antarctic Peninsula,” Nature 314, no. 6006 (1985).

  60. 60.

    22 May 1985 “Antarctic oil deposits pose treaty problem” Financial Review.

  61. 61.

    2 July 1985, Department of Science minute “Antarctic IDC on protected areas” and 5 July 1985 “Note for file” (NAA: B1387 85/997).

  62. 62.

    1 August 1985, John Heap letter to Hugh Wyndham, Department of Foreign Affairs (NAA: B1387 85/997), 2.

  63. 63.

    Tepper and Haward, “The Development of Malaysia’s Position on Antarctica: 1982 to 2004,” 115.

  64. 64.

    17 September 1985, PA41352 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 85/997), para 5.

  65. 65.

    1 August 1985, John Heap letter to Hugh Wyndham, Department of Foreign Affairs (NAA: B1387 85/997), 5.

  66. 66.

    17 September 1985, PA41352 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 85/997), para 3.

  67. 67.

    4 October 1985, Roger Green “Antarctic proposals to be considered” Canberra Times, 6. The proposal was advocated by Lyn Goldsworthy, who championed Antarctic issues for many years.

  68. 68.

    Senate Standing Committee on National Resources, “The Natural Resources of the Australian Antarctic Territory,” Parliamentary Paper No 495/1985 (AGPS, 1985).

  69. 69.

    Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 178–79.

  70. 70.

    This oversight would be remedied in the second Whangaroa session in September when, instead, Australia was not invited.

  71. 71.

    This is not to be confused with a share for developing states under the Law of the Sea common heritage of humankind concept.

  72. 72.

    14 April 1986, “Opening address by the Hon Barry O Jones” (NAA: B1387 1985/889 PART 2).

  73. 73.

    21 April 1986, ZZ012 “Antarctic minerals meeting (4)” (NAA: B1387 1985/889 PART 2).

  74. 74.

    26 April 1986, ZZ021 “Antarctic minerals meeting (7)” (NAA: B1387 1985/889 PART 2).

  75. 75.

    21 April 1986, ANT SCM/8 ASOC Paper no. 4 “The World Park option for Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1985/889 PART 2).

  76. 76.

    11 June 1986, letter from Gareth Evans to Barry Jones (NAA: B1387 1985/21 PART 1).

  77. 77.

    24 July 1986 and 1 August 1986, Antarctic Division internal minutes (NAA: B1387 1987/16C PART 1).

  78. 78.

    15 August 1986, briefing paper “Department of Science Objectives in Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1987/16C PART 1).

  79. 79.

    23 October 1986, letter from Rex Moncur (AAD) to Ian Nicholson, Department of Foreign Affairs (NAA: B1387 1987/16C PART 1).

  80. 80.

    NGOs were accused of being “intellectually bankrupt”, defamatory and libellous. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 180–81 and 97.

  81. 81.

    Ibid., 207.

  82. 82.

    August 1986, Ecofund Australia “Antarctic Conservation Convention, Second Draft” (AU-ATADD-5-BB-GE-456). 1986 ACF Briefing Paper “Antarctic—the world park and world heritage options” (AU-ATADD-5-BB-GE-174), 3–4.

  83. 83.

    19 September 1986, “Chairman’s informal personal report: MR/17 REV II. Draft articles for an Antarctic mineral resources convention (Beeby III)” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-245).

  84. 84.

    14 November 1986, TK53824 “Antarctica: Ninth Session Minerals Negotiations—Report No 14” (NAA: B1387 1987/16 PART 2).

  85. 85.

    13 November 1986, TK53803 “Antarctica: Ninth Session Minerals Negotiations—Report No 11” (NAA: B1387 1987/16 PART 2).

  86. 86.

    14 November 1986, TK53821 “Antarctica: Ninth Session Minerals Negotiations—Report No 13” (NAA: B1387 1987/16 PART 2). Australia feared subsidies undermining its lucrative mineral exports.

  87. 87.

    12 November 1986, TK53776 “Antarctica: Ninth Session Minerals Negotiations—Report No 9 (NAA: B1387 1987/16C PART 1).

  88. 88.

    14 November 1986, TK53824 “Antarctica: Ninth Session Minerals Negotiations—Report No 14” (NAA: B1387 1987/16 PART 2).

  89. 89.

    1987 undated and untitled briefing document at folio 167 (NAA: B1387 1987/25 PART 1).

  90. 90.

    1987 undated IDC notes “Brief for Montevideo” (NAA: B1387 1987/25 PART 3).

  91. 91.

    20 February 1987, brief to minister “Antarctic minerals negotiations—Australian position on liability provisions” (NAA: B1387 89/417).

  92. 92.

    9 March 1987, CH418333 “Antarctic minerals negotiations: United States/Australian difficulties” (AAD: 84/360–1).

  93. 93.

    23 February 1987, brief to minister, “Antarctic Treaty minerals negotiations” (NAA: B1387 1987/25 PART 1). The United States argued that certain minerals, such as cobalt, would be sought “irrespective of the costs of production”. 11 December 1987, CE465165 and 18 December 1987, WE7705 “Antarctic minerals: Anti subsidy article” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 1).

  94. 94.

    11 March 1987, brief to minister, “Antarctic Treaty minerals negotiations—proposed Cabinet submission”. 17 March 1987, letter from Minister for Science to Minister for Foreign Affairs (NAA: B1387 1987/25 PART 2).

  95. 95.

    21 April 1987, brief to minister “Antarctic minerals negotiations—Cabinet submission” (NAA: B1387 1987/25 PART 2).

  96. 96.

    27 April 1987, Cabinet Minute, Submission 4757 “Australian objectives in Antarctic minerals negotiations” (NAA: A14039 4757).

  97. 97.

    Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 188–90.

  98. 98.

    2 April 1987, “Antarctic mineral resources. Chairman’s informal personal report: MR/17 REV III” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-246). This was ‘Beeby IV’.

  99. 99.

    25 March 1987, John Kennedy “Envoys talk strategy on Antarctic mining” The Age, 7.

  100. 100.

    May 1987, Gillian Triggs “Antarctic Treaty minerals negotiations, Uruguay 1987: Report to the Minister for Science” (AAD: 87/805), 7. Triggs, then senior lecturer in law at the University of Melbourne, participated as an observer at the request of the Minister for Science, Barry Jones.

  101. 101.

    Each Australian delegate was free to pursue the objectives of their department.

  102. 102.

    May 1987, Gillian Triggs “Antarctic Treaty minerals negotiations, Uruguay 1987: Report to the Minister for Science” (AAD: 87/805), 18.

  103. 103.

    Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, “Let’s Hear It for an Antarctic Treaty Park,” ECO XXXXI, no. 2, 19 May 1987 (1987): 1.

  104. 104.

    6 October 1987, ANT/XIV/INF/17 “Report of Chairman of Fourth Special Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Minerals” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM14/ip/ATCM14_ip017_e.pdf (accessed 25 March 2020).

  105. 105.

    3 August 1987, letter from New Zealand High Commission (NAA: B1387 1987/25 PART 4).

  106. 106.

    29 September 1987, CE427853 “Antarctic minerals: Claimants’ meeting and share in revenue” (NAA: B1387 1987/25 PART 4).

  107. 107.

    9 October 1987, LH27179 “Antarctic minerals claimants meeting/share in revenue” (NAA: B1387 1987/25 PART 4).

  108. 108.

    16 October 1987, CE436555 “Antarctic minerals: Claimant interests” (AAD: 87/592).

  109. 109.

    16 October 1987, CE436557 “Antarctic minerals: A special share in revenue for claimants” (AAD: 87/592).

  110. 110.

    9 October 1987, letter from Graham Richardson to Bill Hayden (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 1).

  111. 111.

    21 October 1987, letters from Bill Hayden to Graham Richardson (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 1).

  112. 112.

    4 November 1987, handwritten minute “Minerals IDC” (AAD: 87/592).

  113. 113.

    12 November 1987, J. D. Stanhope minute “Antarctic minerals regime IDC” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 1).

  114. 114.

    Watts’ ingenuity was to define the area of application by reference to the outer limits, rather than extending from problematic territorial baselines. 3 December 1987, Australian delegation report, Auckland consultations (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 1).

  115. 115.

    21 November 1987, AU3646 “Antarctic minerals: Chairman’s Auckland consultations” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 1).

  116. 116.

    26 November 1987, “Antarctic mineral resources. Chairman’s informal personal report: MR/17 REV IV” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-247). This became known as ‘Beeby V’.

  117. 117.

    29 January 1988, WL32479 “Antarctic minerals—Wellington meeting” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 2).

  118. 118.

    19 January 1988, “Penguin protest on Antarctic mining” The Dominion (New Zealand). 30 January 1988, “Mining talks hailed: Ice park sought” The Dominion (New Zealand).

  119. 119.

    8 March 1988, Bob Beale “Antarctica is a goldmine of minerals, scientists believe” Sydney Morning Herald, 3.

  120. 120.

    1 March 1988, AAD internal minute “Antarctic minerals meeting—Wellington, January 1988” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 3).

  121. 121.

    3 February 1988, “Antarctic mineral resources. Chairman’s informal personal report: MR/17 Rev. V” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-250). This is also known as ‘Beeby VI’.

  122. 122.

    24 March 1988, AAD brief to minister “Antarctic minerals convention—Cabinet Submission” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 2), Attachment 1, 41.

  123. 123.

    24 March 1988, AAD brief to minister “Antarctic minerals convention—Cabinet Submission” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 2).

  124. 124.

    28 March 1988, Cabinet Minute 10,819 “Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: A14039 5558).

  125. 125.

    April 1988, “Antarctic mineral resources. Chairman’s informal personal report: MR/17 Rev. V/Corr. 1” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 3).

  126. 126.

    14 April 1988, CE523881 “Antarctic minerals negotiations: Message from Mr Hayden” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 2).

  127. 127.

    19 April 1988, WE11004 “Antarctic minerals negotiations” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 2).

  128. 128.

    26 April 1988, LE69174 “Antarctic minerals negotiations: Message from Mr Hayden” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 3).

  129. 129.

    28 April 1988, PA67337 “Antarctic minerals negotiations—French views” (AAD: 81/346–2).

  130. 130.

    The German Democratic Republic and Italy had achieved ATCP status in October 1987.

  131. 131.

    May 1988, “Brief for the Australian Delegation to the Special Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Minerals, 12th Session, Wellington 2 May-2 June 1988” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 3).

  132. 132.

    3 May 1988, WL33315 “Antarctic minerals: 12th session: Report no 2—opening plenary and work program” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 3).

  133. 133.

    9 May 1988, WL33372 “Antarctic minerals” 12th session: Report no 3—round-up of week one” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 4).

  134. 134.

    Reported by Australian delegate David Lyons, see Bowden, The Silence Calling: Australians in Antarctica 1947–1997, 409.

  135. 135.

    June 1988, B. Doran (compiler) DFAT “Volumes of available documents, Vol 2” (AU-ATADD-4-BB-AQ-266).

  136. 136.

    3 March 1988, ASOC information paper 1988–2 “Some solutions to problems with the draft Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 4). 5 May 1988, ASOC Information Paper 1988–3 “Some solutions to the problems with the liability provisions in the draft minerals convention” (AU-ATADD-5-BB-GE-381).

  137. 137.

    20 May 1988, AMR/SCM/88/67 “Draft Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities”.

  138. 138.

    23 May 1988, INF/09 “Chairman’s Plenary statement” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 4).

  139. 139.

    Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 217.

  140. 140.

    26 May 1988, WL33535 “Antarctic minerals negotiations: 12th session: Report no 11—request for instructions from ministers” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 4).

  141. 141.

    For example, see 27 May 1988, letter from Duffy to Cook (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 4).

  142. 142.

    For example, see 30 May 1988, letter from Richardson to Duffy (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 5).

  143. 143.

    30 May 1988, letter from Cook to Duffy (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 4).

  144. 144.

    1 June 1988, letter from Keating to Duffy (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 4).

  145. 145.

    31 May 1988, WL33571 “Antarctic minerals: 12th session: Report no 14—revenue sharing and anti-subsidy” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 5).

  146. 146.

    Tormey, the Treasury representative, appeared particularly dissatisfied with the outcome. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 219–20.

  147. 147.

    1 June 1988, CE548211 “Antarctic minerals negotiations: Instructions to delegation” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 5).

  148. 148.

    6 June 1988, DASETT brief to minister “Antarctic minerals convention negotiations” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 5).

  149. 149.

    “Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities”. Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Fourth Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Mineral Resources (Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Wellington), 1988), 43–109.

  150. 150.

    Final Report of the Fourth Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting on Antarctic Mineral Resources, 36–42.

  151. 151.

    2 June 1988, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade, news release “Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 1). The release quotes the Acting Foreign Minister Duffy and the Environment Minister Richardson.

  152. 152.

    4 June 1988, Peter Ward “South to Antarctica, south the race is on” Weekend Australian, 3.

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  1. University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia

    Andrew Jackson

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Jackson, A. (2021). Negotiating a Minerals Convention: June 1982 to June 1988. In: Who Saved Antarctica? . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78405-8_3

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