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Antarctic Mining Might Be Possible: From Finding Gold to 1982

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Who Saved Antarctica?

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Abstract

Interest in Antarctica’s minerals potential emerged during the so-called ‘heroic era’, the earliest years of terrestrial exploration. Shackleton’s expedition reported coal in Trans-Antarctic Mountains, and gold was found in the geological samples collected during Mawson’s expedition. Antarctica’s possible commercial value became a factor behind the making of territorial claims, and within a short time there was imaginative speculation about what minerals may be present and how they might be obtained. Because the territorial claims lacked universal recognition, states active in the region negotiated the Antarctic Treaty to deal with the sovereignty issue and ensure peaceful use of the region. The minerals question, however, was too sensitive to tackle but, by the mid-1970s, Antarctic states were determined to address the problem before it became divisive. This chapter, which spans the period to 1982, discusses how the imagined prospect of valuable resources amplified existing friction over the Antarctic territorial claims and how the states involved developed environmental measures, overcame their reluctance to discuss resources, put in place a temporary mining moratorium while exploring the issues and protecting their national interests. Early environment protection measures were adopted.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    “Trevett William Dalwood—obituary” http://www.users.on.net/~idalwood/myfamily/trevett-w-obit.html (accessed 3 February 2021).

  2. 2.

    Douglas Mawson, “Record of Minerals of King George Land, Adelie Land and Queen Mary Land,” Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911–14. Scientific Reports. Series A Vol IV, no. 12 (1940): 373–74.

  3. 3.

    Ernest Shackleton, South (William Heineman, 1919), 325–26.

  4. 4.

    Douglas Mawson, “The Australasian Antarctic Expedition,” Geographical Journal 37, no. 6 (1911): 610–12.

  5. 5.

    Ibid., 619.

  6. 6.

    C. E. Borchgrevink, “The ‘Southern Cross’ Expedition to the Antarctic, 1899–1900,” The Geographical Journal 16, no. 4 (1900): 390.

  7. 7.

    Robert J. Tingey, “Heroic Age Geology in Victoria Land, Antarctica,” Polar Record 21, no. 134 (1983): 453.

  8. 8.

    8 June 1909, Press Association “Mining in Antarctica. Not a promising outlook” Poverty Bay Herald (New Zealand), 5. https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/PBH19090608.2.33 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  9. 9.

    Order in Council of 7 February 1933 in: W. M. Bush, ed. Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents (Oceana, 1982), Vol II, 144–45. This Order in Council was given effect by the Australian Antarctic Territory Acceptance Act 1933 and proclaimed on 24 August 1936. Ibid., 151–52.

  10. 10.

    Attorney-General John Latham invoked the case of Alaska to illustrate the advantages of acquiring territory. 26 May 1933, House of Representatives Hansard, 1949–1958.

  11. 11.

    Adrian Howkins, “Science, Environment, and Sovereignty: The International Geophysical Year in the Antarctic Peninsula Region,” in Globalizing Polar Science—Reconsidering the International Polar and Geophysical Years, ed. R. D. Launius, J. R. Fleming, and D. H. DeVorkin (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 245–49.

  12. 12.

    7 July 1939 “United States Antarctic Service” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-US-69).

  13. 13.

    The claims are, in order of being asserted: Great Britain 1908; New Zealand 1923; France 1924; Australia 1933; Norway 1939; Chile 1940; Argentina 1946. One sector, between 90° West and 150° West, is unclaimed. The United States and the Russian Federation asserted the basis of a possible future claim. Brian Roberts, “Territorial Claims in the Antarctic,” (UK Foreign Office Research Department, 1945). Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, passim. Klaus Dodds, Geopolitics in Antarctica (John Wiley, 1997). Marie Kawaja and Tom Griffiths, “‘Our Great Frozen Neighbour’: Australia and Antarctica before the Treaty, 1880–1945,” in Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System: 50 Years of Influence, ed. Marcus Haward and Tom Griffiths (UNSW Press, 2011).

  14. 14.

    Howkins, “Science, Environment, and Sovereignty: The International Geophysical Year in the Antarctic Peninsula Region,” 251. The Polar Regions: An Environmental History, 139.

  15. 15.

    How the 1959 Treaty emerged has been addressed by others, including: Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents. F. M. Auburn, Antarctic Law and Politics (Hurst, 1982). Peter J. Beck, The International Politics of Antarctica (Croom Helm, 1986). Arthur Watts, International Law and the Antarctic Treaty System (Grotius, 1992). H. Robert Hall, International Regime Formation and Leadership: The Origins of the Antarctic Treaty (PhD thesis, University of Tasmania, 1994).

  16. 16.

    Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol II, 334–67. Gómez specifically mentioned silver, zinc, gold, iron, copper, antimony and molybdenum. 9 June 1947, Memorandum from Australian Legation Santiago, “Chilean Activities in the Antarctic 1947” (NAA: A3300 541A).

  17. 17.

    3 October 1947, US State Department, Office of Intelligence Research Report no. 4296 “History and current status of claims in Antarctica”. (AU-ATADD-1-BB-US-30), iii–iv.

  18. 18.

    16 May 1951, “Mineral resources of the Antarctic: Statement by Minister of External Affairs” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-NZ-30)

  19. 19.

    W. L. S. Fleming, “Contemporary International Interest in the Antarctic,” International Affairs 23, no. 4 (1947): 557.

  20. 20.

    Commonwealth of Australia, 10 September 1953. Proclamation claiming sovereign rights over the continental shelf of Australia and its territories, reproduced in: Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol II, 172–74.

  21. 21.

    R. G. Casey, “The Establishment of a Scientific Research Station on the Antarctic Mainland: Statement by the Minister for External Affairs, the Rt Hon R G Casey, 20th March 1953,” Current Notes in International Affairs 24, no. 3 (1953): 170.

  22. 22.

    Un-numbered file “Geology Antarctic” retrieved from AAD Library Special Collection (probably a file held by Phillip Law, ex-Director of the AAD).

  23. 23.

    August 1954 “Article on the Australian Antarctic Territory (extract)” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AU-14). 23 July 1957, Memorandum from Australian External Affairs Office London, “The strategic importance of Antarctica” (TNA: DO/35/6984). The Committee was relieved that “there is no apparent economic justification for the establishment of a Communist base in Antarctica”.

  24. 24.

    4 November 1955 “Why the race to the Antarctic: Interview with Rear Adm George J Dufek” (AU-ATADD-5-BB-GE-37), 86–87.

  25. 25.

    25 January 1956, “Call for UN control of Antarctica”, The Times. 15 October 1959, “New Zealand statement at the Conference on Antarctic in Washington” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-NZ-104).

  26. 26.

    5 March 1957, Ministry of Defence, Draft report “United Kingdom strategic interests in the Falkland Islands and Antarctica” (TNA: DO/35/6984).

  27. 27.

    Howkins, The Polar Regions: An Environmental History, 139.

  28. 28.

    15 July 1957, Colonial Office Memorandum, “Antarctica: Joint note by the Foreign Office and the Colonial Office (TNA: DO/35/6984).

  29. 29.

    26 June 1957, Colonial Office, file note (TNA: DO/35/6984).

  30. 30.

    A. Bell, “Economic Analysis of Territorial Sovereignty,” in Economic Analysis of International Law, ed. Eugene Kontorovich and Francesco Parisi (Edward Elgar, 2016), 85.

  31. 31.

    See 18 October 1960, ministerial statement in the House of Representatives, reproduced in: Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol I, 288.

  32. 32.

    October 1970, “Sixth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Brief for the Australian Delegation” (NAA: B1387 1991/640 PART 3).

  33. 33.

    Article IX of the Antarctic Treaty lists several areas for possible measures, but omits mineral resources.

  34. 34.

    Paul C. Daniels, “The Antarctic Treaty,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 26, no. 10 (1970): 15.

  35. 35.

    R. H. Wyndham, “Report of the Working Group on Legal and Political Questions,” in Antarctic Resources: Report from the Informal Meeting of Experts 30 May-9 June 1973, ed. Finn Sollie (Fridtjof Nansen Foundation, 1974), L10. 12 June 1975 “United States statement on claims to sovereignty and the exploitation of Antarctic mineral resources” in Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol III, 489.

  36. 36.

    ‘Antarctica in the year 2000’ in: George J. Dufek, Through the Frozen Frontier (Brockhampton, 1960), 171–86.

  37. 37.

    Deborah Shapley, The Seventh Continent: Antarctica in a Resource Age (Resources for the Future, 1985), 124.

  38. 38.

    US Senate, 14 June 1960 “The Antarctic Treaty”, Hearings before the Committee on Foreign Relations, 77 at: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b643287;view=1up;seq=5 (accessed 3 February 2021). Gould had earlier advised “that the Antarctic has coal reserves second only to those of the United States”: 3 October 1947, US State Department, Office of Intelligence Research Report no. 4296 “History and current status of claims in Antarctica” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-US-30), iii–iv.

  39. 39.

    18 October 1960, House of Representatives Hansard, 2108–2111.

  40. 40.

    R. K. Headland, A Chronology of Antarctic Exploration (Quaritch, 2009), 105–35. Whaling was already regulated under the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling.

  41. 41.

    10 July 1961, meeting paper Sec. Paper/8 “Suggested form of measures to promote conservation of nature in the Antarctic—SCAR document” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM1/sp/ATCM1_sp008_e.pdf (accessed 26 March 2020). This reflected earlier thinking: Robert Carrick, “Conservation of Nature in Antarctica,” Polar Record 10, no. 68 (1961): 534.

  42. 42.

    June 1961, Antarctic Treaty First Consultative Meeting, “Brief for the Australian Delegation” (AAD: B13/178).

  43. 43.

    Antarctic Treaty, Report of the First Consultative Meeting, Canberra, July 10–24 1961 (Commonwealth Government Printer, 1961), 8–9.

  44. 44.

    17 July 1962, ATCM II WP003 “Draft Convention on the Conservation of Wild Life in the Antarctic” at: https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM2/wp/ATCM2_wp003_e.pdf (accessed 26 March 2020).

  45. 45.

    9 August 1962, Savingram 13,955 “Antarctic Treaty Second Consultative Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1989/365 PART 2).

  46. 46.

    28 December 1962, Telegram 342 Law to Rowland (NAA: B1387 1989/365 PART 2). The Antarctic Division later became the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD). Phillip Law was the first director of the Division. Kathleen Ralston, A Man for Antarctica: The Early Life of Phillip Law (Hyland House, 1993), 109–218.

  47. 47.

    14 August 1963, UK Foreign Office, letter from Roberts to Law (NAA: B1387 1989/365 PART 2).

  48. 48.

    June 1964, W. R. Crocker, “Report of the Australian Delegation on the Third Consultative Meeting of the Antarctic Treaty” (AAD: B13/180), p. 12.

  49. 49.

    Antarctic Treaty, Recommendation III-VIII https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/35 (accessed 26 March 2020).

  50. 50.

    “Report of the Australian Delegation on the Third Consultative Meeting of the Antarctic Treaty”, 4. It was also capitalised in Russian.

  51. 51.

    See, for example, compilations of research in: Y. Tolstikov, ed. Atlas Antarktiki vol. 1 (Glavnoe Upravlenie Geodezii i Kartografii, 1966). Campbell Craddock, Geologic Maps of Antarctica, vol. 12, Antarctic Map Folio Series (American Geographical Society, 1970).

  52. 52.

    August 1962, Phillip Law “Resources and uses of Antarctica” 37th ANZAAS Congress, Geographical Section (AU-ATADD-5-BB-GE-308).

  53. 53.

    June 1962, Phillip Law “Possible future developments in Antarctica” (AU-ATADD-5-BB-GE-307).

  54. 54.

    Phillip Law, Antarctica 1984, Sir John Morris Memorial Lecture 1964 (Adult Education Board of Tasmania, 1964), 9–12.

  55. 55.

    May 1961, Submission to Cabinet by J. G. Gorton, Minister Assisting the Minister for External Affairs. In informal folder in AAD Library “Revised Cabinet Submission 17 May 1961—spare copies”. R. A. Swan, Australia in the Antarctic: Interest, Activity and Endeavour (Melbourne University Press, 1961), 369. Law later urged Australia to relinquish the AAT to facilitate agreement on mining. Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, “Law Says ‘Abandon Claim’,” ECO XXVIII, no. 3, 22–31 May 1984 (1984).

  56. 56.

    29 July 1966, Memorandum from New Zealand High Commission London to External Affairs Wellington, “Antarctic Treaty, Fourth Consultative Meeting (NAA: B1387 1989/366 PART 1). 17 June 1966, letter Lindblad Travel Inc. to “John D Spicer, Stevenage, Herts” (NAA: B1387 1989/366 PART 1).

  57. 57.

    Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol III, 77–79. 18 November 1968, “Antarctic Treaty Fifth Consultative Meeting” (AAD: B13/182), 7–10. Malcolm Templeton, A Wise Adventure: New Zealand in Antarctica 1920–1960 (Victoria University Press, 2000), Ch V.

  58. 58.

    21 November 1966 “Report of the Australian Delegation to the Fourth Consultative Meeting of the Antarctic Treaty” (NAA: B1387 1989/366 PART 3).

  59. 59.

    Antarctic Treaty Fourth Consultative Meeting “Brief for the Australian Delegation”, 2. Australian Delegation brief “Antarctic Treaty Fifth Consultative Meeting, 6.

  60. 60.

    Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol I, 147.

  61. 61.

    19 March 1970, Memorandum Australian Embassy Washington to External Affairs “Sixth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/640 PART 1). The text of the Convention is at: https://documents.ats.aq/keydocs/vol_1/vol1_13_CCAS_CCAS_e.pdf (accessed 26 March 2020).

  62. 62.

    Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol I, 246–47.

  63. 63.

    Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 40–41.

  64. 64.

    22 July 1968, Department of External Affairs Brief to minister “Australian activities in Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1991/637 PART 1), 2.

  65. 65.

    Neal Potter, Natural Resource Potentials of the Antarctic, American Geographical Society Occasional Publication No. 4 (1969), 16–17, 30.

  66. 66.

    17 December 1969, I.128467 “Antarctic Treaty Sixth Consultative Meeting, First Preparatory meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/640 PART 1).

  67. 67.

    19 December 1969, Third Person Note, New Zealand Embassy Tokyo “Mineral prospecting in Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1991/640 PART 1). Being informal, Preparatory meetings allowed matters of great substance to be canvassed. Preparatory meetings were held until 1991.

  68. 68.

    18 March 1970, Memorandum External Affairs to Department of Supply “Sixth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting—Minerals” (NAA: B1387 1991/640 PART 1).

  69. 69.

    19 March 1970, Memorandum Australian Embassy Washington to External Affairs “Sixth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/640 PART 1).

  70. 70.

    8 July 1970, Memorandum AHC London “6th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting October 1970” (NAA: B1387 1991/640 PART 2).

  71. 71.

    3 August 1970, Memorandum Australian Embassy Buenos Aires to External Affairs “Sixth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting October 1970” (NAA: B1387 1991/640 PART 2).

  72. 72.

    Donald D. Runnells, “Continental Drift and Economic Minerals in Antarctica,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters 8, no. 6 (1970).

  73. 73.

    7 April 1970, “Diamonds and platinum finds are expected in Antarctica” The Evening Post (New Zealand).

  74. 74.

    14 April 1970, Memorandum AHC Wellington “Antarctica: Mineral exploration” (NAA: B1387 1973/17). Beeby, acting head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Legal Division, led New Zealand delegations from ATCM XI and chaired the minerals negotiations from 1982 to 1988.

  75. 75.

    2 July 1970, Australian Delegation reporting “The Fifth Preparatory Meeting for the Sixth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting” together with “Provisional United Kingdom views” (NAA: B1387 1991/640 PART 2).

  76. 76.

    October 1970, “Sixth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting” (AAD: B13/183), 17.

  77. 77.

    8 February 1971, letter A. S. Cooley, Supply to Australian Mining Industry Council “Petroleum and other mineral exploration and exploitation in Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1973/17).

  78. 78.

    Antarctic Treaty. Report of the Sixth Consultative Meeting, Tokyo, 19–31 October 1970 https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM6/fr/ATCM6_fr001_e.pdf (accessed 26 March 2020).

  79. 79.

    26 February 1971, I.23059 “Committee on Natural Resources” (NAA: B1387 1973/17). Beck, The International Politics of Antarctica, 272–83. Common heritage of humankind concepts arose in a 1967 proposal by Malta’s UN Ambassador Arvid Pardo seeking to resolve deep seabed issues. James B Morell, The Law of the Sea: An Historical Analysis of the 1982 Treaty and Its Rejection by the United States (McFarland & Company, 1992), 18–21.

  80. 80.

    10 March 1972, Seventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Wellington 1972 “Informal Minutes of the First Preparatory Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1989/363 PART 1).

  81. 81.

    26 July 1972, Memorandum Department of Foreign Affairs to Department of Supply “Seventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Expanded Preparatory Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/462 PART 3).

  82. 82.

    With respect to the AAT: AOG Minerals Pty Ltd.; A G Fisher Associates Ltd.; David O Parsons XLX NL; Crusader Oil; Shell Development; Amdex Mining Ltd.; and Australian Aquitanic Petroleum Pty Ltd. With respect to Heard Island: Hunt International Petroleum Co; Beaver Exploration Australia NL; Raymond H Levy; Phillips Australian Oil Co; and Shell Development (Australia) Pty Ltd. (AAD: B13/184).

  83. 83.

    8 June 1972 “Exploring the Antarctic” TASS News, transcribed in: 23 June 1972, Memorandum Australian Embassy Moscow to Department of Foreign Affairs (NAA: B1387 1981/348 PART 1).

  84. 84.

    Papers from the United Kingdom (23 June 1972), South Africa (26 July 1972) and the United States (2 August 1972) (AAD: B13/184).

  85. 85.

    31 July 1972, ATCM VI Preparatory Meeting paper PP 3/6 “Note by France” (NAA: B1387 1991/462 PART 2).

  86. 86.

    August 1972, Minutes of the Third Preparatory Meeting (NAA: B1387 1991/462 PART 2), 4.

  87. 87.

    H. Elliott, “Recommendation 5: Establishment of Antarctica as a World Park under United Nations Auspices,” in Second World Conference on National Parks 1972, ed. H, Elliott (IUCN, 1974), 260, 443–44.

  88. 88.

    “International Park,” Antarctic (New Zealand Antarctic Society) 6, no. 8 (1972). Clinch, president of the American Alpine Club, led the 1966 first ascent of Antarctica’s highest peak, Mount Vinson. Damien Gildea, Mountaineering in Antarctica (Editions Nevicata, 2010), 15–16.

  89. 89.

    30 September 1974, Department of Environment and Conservation memorandum “Antarctic world park” (NAA: B1387 1991/667 PART 1). No evidence has been found of such an Argentine proposal.

  90. 90.

    Robert Carrick, “Conservation in the Antarctic,” in First World Conference on National Parks, ed. Alexander B. Adams (US National Park Service, 1962).

  91. 91.

    Robert Cushman Murphy, “Antarctica: The Urgency of Protecting Life on and around the Great Southerly Continent,” Natural History 76, no. 6 (1967): 22.

  92. 92.

    October 1972, Draft Cabinet Submission “Australian Antarctic Policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/462 PART 3).

  93. 93.

    11 October 1972, letter from FCO to AHC London “Seventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Antarctic Resources—effects of mineral exploration” (NAA: B1387 1991/462 PART 3). 18 October 1972, ANT VII ANT/17 (UK) “Antarctic resources: Effects of mineral exploration” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM7/wp/ATCM7_wp017_e.pdf (accessed 22 March 2020). A simplified version also failed to gain traction. See https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM7/wp/ATCM7_wp017_rev1_e.pdf (accessed 22 March 2020).

  94. 94.

    October 1972, Brief for the Australian Delegation, Seventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (AAD: B13/184).

  95. 95.

    3 November 1972, telegram Styles from Hunt confirming telephone call (NAA: B1387 1989/363 PART 1).

  96. 96.

    31 October 1972, ATCM VII ANT/37 (Argentina) “Mineral resources, effects of prospecting for minerals” (accessed 22 March 2020).

  97. 97.

    2 November 1972, ATCM VII ANT/44 (Chile) “Antarctic resources: Effects of mineral exploration” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM7/wp/ATCM7_wp044_e.pdf (accessed 22 March 2020).

  98. 98.

    November 1972, “Report of the Australian Delegation to the Seventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Wellington, New Zealand 1972” (AAD: B13/184), 30C.

  99. 99.

    Antarctic Treaty, Recommendation ATCM VII-6 “Study and discussion of the exploitation of Antarctic mineral resources” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/97 (accessed 22 March 2020).

  100. 100.

    November 1972, Brief to minister on outcomes of ATCM VII, comments on Recommendation VII-6 (NAA: B1387 1991/462 PART 4).

  101. 101.

    Richard D McIver, “Hydrocarbon Gases in Canned Core Samples from Leg 28 Sites 271, 272, and 273, Ross Sea,” Deep Sea Drilling Project Reports XXVIII, no. 28 (1975). “Sites 270, 271, 272,” Deep Sea Drilling Project Initial Reports XXVIII, no. 8 (1975): 214.

  102. 102.

    Antarctic waters were estimated to contain up to 45 billion barrels of oil, at least half of that recoverable from offshore Alaska: Deborah Shapley, “Antarctica: World Hunger for Oil Spurs Security Council Review,” Science 184, no. 4138 (1974). The Seventh Continent: Antarctica in a Resource Age, 124–25.

  103. 103.

    12 March 1973, letter N. S. Currie Supply to B. L. Short Kilroy Company of Texas (NAA: B1387 1973/17).

  104. 104.

    14 February 1973, J. P. Lonergan, note for file “Antarctic matters” (NAA: B1387 1991/370), 3.

  105. 105.

    7 April 1973, TASS News, transcribed in: 15 May 1973, Memorandum Australian Embassy Moscow to Department of Foreign Affairs (NAA: B1387 1981/348 PART 1).

  106. 106.

    14 February 1973, J. P. Lonergan, Note for file “Antarctic matters” (NAA: B1387 1991/370), 1–2. 9 May 1973, Fridtjof Nansen Foundation circular “Preliminary list of participants” (NAA: B1387 1991/370).

  107. 107.

    25 May 1973, Department of Science, brief to minister “Exploitation of the Antarctic—Nansen Foundation Conference” (NAA: B1387 1991/370). Wyndham had many further connections with Antarctic diplomacy until the conclusion of the Madrid Protocol.

  108. 108.

    29 May 1973, Note for file, P. B. Free Department of Science “Meeting of the Nansen Foundation” (NAA: B1387 1991/370).

  109. 109.

    29 May 1973, “Prepared remarks by Ambassador Edvard Hambro” (NAA: B1387 1991/370).

  110. 110.

    Finn Sollie, ed. Antarctic Resources: Report from the Informal Meeting of Experts 30 May-9 June 1973 (Fridtjof Nansen Foundation, 1974), 2–3.

  111. 111.

    Richard Willett, “Report of the Scientific and Technical Working Group,” in Antarctic Resources: Report from the Informal Meeting of Experts 30 May-9 June 1973, ed. Finn Sollie (Fridtjof Nansen Foundation, 1974).

  112. 112.

    The ‘rule’, originating in the United Kingdom’s Royal Institute of International Affairs at Chatham House, provides that information obtained during a meeting can be reported but not attributed.

  113. 113.

    In 1993, the term ‘Recommendation’ was replaced by ‘Measure’, ‘Resolution’ or ‘Decision’ in order of decreasing legal intent.

  114. 114.

    Wyndham, “Report of the Working Group on Legal and Political Questions,” L1–L20. There is useful commentary in: Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol I, 283–94.

  115. 115.

    Publication was never intended, and it was not sent to relevant governments until 1974. See September 1974, Document XIII-SCAR-34 “Report of the meeting of the meetings of the Group of Delegates 4, 5 & 6 September 1974 (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 1).

  116. 116.

    The genesis of the 1973 “oil crisis” is examined in: Roy Licklider, “The Power of Oil,” International Studies Quarterly 32, no. 2 (1988).

  117. 117.

    10 July 1974, Memorandum 873, Australian Embassy Paris “The Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 1).

  118. 118.

    2 July 1974, Memorandum 881, Australian Embassy Tokyo “Japan: The Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 1991/667 PART 1). 18 July 1974, Memorandum 951, Australian Embassy Tokyo “Japan: Preparations for the 8th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 1).

  119. 119.

    25 July 1974, Memorandum 2039, AHC London “The Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 1).

  120. 120.

    19 July 1974, Memorandum 1799, Australian Embassy Washington to Department of Foreign Affairs “The Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 1). This memorandum was prepared by John McCarthy, who later led Australia in concluding the Protocol.

  121. 121.

    26 September 1974, Department of Foreign Affairs “Draft briefing: Antarctic Preparatory Meeting: Antarctic resources—effects of minerals exploration” (NAA: B1387 1991/667 PART 1).

  122. 122.

    23 September 1974, SC620 “Preparatory Meeting—Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 1991/531 PART 1).

  123. 123.

    5 August 1974, Cabinet Memorandum “Australian Antarctic policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/667 PART 1), 3.

  124. 124.

    9 August 1974, Brief to Minister for Science “Law of the Sea—Implications for Antarctic waters” (NAA: B1387 1991/531 PART 1). Australia had entered the Treaty having already asserted rights to an Antarctic shelf. Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents.

  125. 125.

    9 October 1974, LH19027 “Preparatory meeting: Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 1).

  126. 126.

    10 October 1974, LH19123 “Preparatory meeting: Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 1).

  127. 127.

    10 October 1974, Memorandum AHC London covering “Unofficial and Informal Draft Recommendation for Discussion October 1974” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 1).

  128. 128.

    24 July 1974, Department of Foreign Affairs record of conversation “Antarctica: Economic exploration” (NAA: B1387 1973/17). Edvard Hambro, “Some Notes on the Future of the Antarctic Treaty Collaboration,” The American Journal of International Law 68, no. 2 (1974).

  129. 129.

    October 1974, “Eighth Antarctic Consultative Meeting, Preparatory Meeting. Oslo 14–19 October 1974, Report by Australian Participant” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 2), 6–8.

  130. 130.

    14 October 1974, letter J. G. Mosley (ACF) to Minister for Science (NAA: B1387 1991/531 PART 1).

  131. 131.

    18 February 1975, “Minutes of Antarctic IDC 18 February 1975” (NAA: B1387 1991/667 PART 1). Henry Burmester went on to have an extended role in Australian international legal policy, including in the minerals and environment debates.

  132. 132.

    February 1975, Brief for the Preparatory Meeting “Antarctic World Park” (NAA: B1387 1991/531 PART 2).

  133. 133.

    7 March 1975, Keith Brennan, Memorandum 113 covering “Second Preparatory Meeting, Report of the Australian Representative” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 3). Antarctica did get raised in Geneva—NGOs specifically referred to Antarctic waters as part of the Common Heritage. 29 April 1975, GE11002 “Law of the Sea—Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 1991/667 PART 2).

  134. 134.

    28 February 1975, BE902 “Antarctic Treaty and Law of the Sea” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 2).

  135. 135.

    See NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 2; NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 3; and NAA: B1387 1991/667 PART 2.

  136. 136.

    23 April 1975 “Minutes of Meeting of Antarctic IDC” (NAA: B1387 1991/667 PART 2).

  137. 137.

    18 April 1975, Department of Foreign Affairs record of discussion “Antarctic consultative meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/667 PART 2). 21 April 1975, Department of Foreign Affairs note “Antarctic policy: Stresses on the present regime” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 2).

  138. 138.

    12 May 1975 “Department of State letter concerning exclusive permit to explore and develop the Weddell and Ross Seas” (AU-ATADD-BB-US-46).

  139. 139.

    14 May 1975, Telex 2936 London to Wellington “8th Antarctic Consultative Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/667 PART 2).

  140. 140.

    27 May 1975, Submission to the Prime Minister “Australian Antarctic policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/667 PART 3).

  141. 141.

    Antarctic Treaty, Report of the Eighth Consultative Meeting, Oslo, 9–20 June 1975 (Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Oslo), 1975).

  142. 142.

    16 June 1975, ST1277 “Antarctic meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/531 PART 2).

  143. 143.

    16 June 1975, ST1276 “Antarctic meeting-mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 1991/531 PART 2). July 1975, “Report of the Australian Delegation, Eighth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Oslo 9–20 June 1975” (AAD: B13/185). At the time the term ‘world park’ was avoided—the proposal was for an ‘international park’ or ‘international reserve’. The nomenclature seemed confused—after the ATCM, Brennan reported New Zealand as preferring a ‘national park’. See July 1975, “Report of the Australian Delegation, Eighth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Oslo 9–20 June 1975” (AAD: B13/185), 19.

  144. 144.

    This quote, possibly the only record of New Zealand’s proposal, comes from the personal notes of an Australian delegate (probably AAD Director Dr Ray Garrod) in a document headed “12.6.75 (1) A.M.” (AAD: B13/185). Templeton reports that “no record survives of the New Zealand statement”. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 334, fn42.

  145. 145.

    Ibid., 89–90. Rowling’s comments are reported in 9 June 1975 “New Zealand, Announcement of Prime Minister concerning the Antarctic policy” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-NZ-58).

  146. 146.

    A Wise Adventure: New Zealand in Antarctica 1920–1960, 167–68. Nash’s idea did not preclude the use of Antarctic resources. In 1956, Nash was Opposition Leader of the New Zealand Labour Party—he became Prime Minister in 1957.

  147. 147.

    A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 91.

  148. 148.

    Talboys, “New Zealand and the Antarctic Treaty,” 33.

  149. 149.

    17 June 1975, ST1291 “Antarctic meeting” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 4). 18 June 1975, ST1292 “Antarctic meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/531 PART 2).

  150. 150.

    3 July 1975, Savingram BU1262 “Eighth Antarctic Consultative Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 4).

  151. 151.

    Antarctic Treaty. Recommendation ATCM VIII-14 “Antarctic resources—effects of mineral exploration” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/114 (accessed 2 March 2020).

  152. 152.

    July 1975, “Report of the Australian Delegation, Eighth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Oslo 9–20 June 1975” (AAD: B13/185).

  153. 153.

    30 June 1975 “Antarctic prospectors: Moscow plans 50-man minerals hunt” Sydney Morning Herald, 5.

  154. 154.

    21 July 1975, WH21159 “Antarctic—USSR activity” (NAA: B1387 1996/861).

  155. 155.

    18 July 1975, WL3465 “Antarctic minerals” (NAA: B1387 1973/17). 15 July 1975, BA2146 “Antarctic minerals” (NAA: B1387 1973/17).

  156. 156.

    12 July 1975, MS2056 “Antarctic minerals” (NAA: B1387 1973/17). Ambiguous Russian reporting re-appeared 25 years later: Kira Lebedeva and Sergei Petukhov, “Russia Decides to Return to the Antarctic with Serious Intentions and for Long,” Commersant 8 (2003).

  157. 157.

    10 September 1975, Aide memoire “Some thoughts on the Antarctic Treaty Special Preparatory Meeting to be held in Paris, Summer 1976” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 2).

  158. 158.

    24 October 1975, Department of Foreign Affairs “Working Paper” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 2).

  159. 159.

    23 February 1976, Memorandum 146, AHC Wellington “New Zealand Antarctic policy” (NAA: B1387 76/176 PART 2). Several factors were at play for New Zealand, including maintaining the ANZUS alliance and its dependence on US logistics support in Antarctica.

  160. 160.

    13 November 1975, Memorandum AHC London “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 2).

  161. 161.

    21 January 1976, Memorandum AHC London “Antarctic Policy” (NAA: B1387 1996/864 PART 1).

  162. 162.

    30 April 1976, LH51694 “Antarctic preparatory meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 1).

  163. 163.

    5 February 1976, Memorandum 44, Australian Embassy Pretoria “Antarctica policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 2).

  164. 164.

    19 January 1976, Memorandum Australian Embassy Stockholm “Antarctic policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 2). 4 March 1976, ST2065 “Antarctic policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 1).

  165. 165.

    1 March 1976, Memorandum 222, Australian Embassy Moscow “Antarctic policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 2).

  166. 166.

    16 January 1976, Memorandum Australian Embassy Brussels “Antarctic policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 2).

  167. 167.

    12 January 1976, Record of conversation, Australian Embassy Buenos Aires with Antarctic and Malvinas Division Argentine Ministry of Foreign Affairs (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 2).

  168. 168.

    11 March 1976, New Zealand cable Santiago to Wellington “Chilean Antarctic policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 2). 7 April 1976, UN5371 “Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 1).

  169. 169.

    https://www.jus.uio.no/english/services/library/treaties/01/1-11/svalbard-treaty.xml (accessed 3 February 2021).

  170. 170.

    27 January 1976, Memorandum 146, Australian Embassy Washington “United States Antarctic policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 2).

  171. 171.

    24 March 1976, Memorandum 494, Australian Embassy Washington “United States views on Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 1). The Memorandum was annotated that the United States might prefer “to deal with a claimant than with a seabed authority”.

  172. 172.

    15 April 1976, Memorandum New Zealand Embassy Washington to Wellington “Antarctic Treaty: Special Consultative Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1996/864 PART 1).

  173. 173.

    4 May 1976, New Zealand cable from New York “Antarctic Treaty: Special Preparatory Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 2).

  174. 174.

    Developing states were urging Antarctic states to take greater account of the international community. Beck, The International Politics of Antarctica, 277–81.

  175. 175.

    18 March 1976, Interdepartmental Committee Meeting, “Draft Minutes” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 1).

  176. 176.

    29 March 1976, IDC paper “Australia’s environmental interests in Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 1).

  177. 177.

    30 March 1976, Interdepartmental Committee Meeting, “Draft Minutes” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 1).

  178. 178.

    11 May 1976, BMR paper “Known mineral resources onshore” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 1). 14 May 1976, BMR papers “Past and present geological and geophysical work onshore” and “Future geological work” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 1).

  179. 179.

    21 April 1976, Interdepartmental Committee Meeting, “Draft Minutes” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 1).

  180. 180.

    29 March 1976, Department of Science commentary (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 1).

  181. 181.

    14 May 1976, Interdepartmental Committee Meeting, “Draft Minutes” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 2).

  182. 182.

    31 May 1976, Department of Foreign Affairs draft Cabinet Submission “Australian policy in the Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 2).

  183. 183.

    July 1976, “Report of the Australian Delegation to the Special Preparatory Meeting of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties on the Exploration and Exploitation of the Mineral Resources of Antarctica” (AAD: B13/197).

  184. 184.

    28 June 1976, RPS-9 (UK) “Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research of the International Council of Scientific Unions: Antarctic resources—effects of mineral exploration”, in: 10 July 1976, “Final Report of the Special Preparatory Meeting for the Ninth Consultative Meeting of the Antarctic Treaty, Paris 28 June to 10 July 1976” (AU-ATADD-3-BB-AQ-296).

  185. 185.

    28 June 1976, RPS-10 (US) Annex C “Antarctic mineral resources”, in: July 1976, “Report of the Australian Delegation to the Special Preparatory Meeting of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties on the Exploration and Exploitation of the Mineral Resources of Antarctica” (AAD: B13/197).

  186. 186.

    30 June 1976, PA23566 “Antarctic preparatory meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 2).

  187. 187.

    1 July 1976, PA23639 “Antarctic preparatory meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 2).

  188. 188.

    1 July 1976, PA23640 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1996/865 PART 2).

  189. 189.

    9 July 1976, PA23900 “Antarctic Preparatory Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 3).

  190. 190.

    July 1976, “Report of the Australian Delegation to the Special Preparatory Meeting of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties on the Exploration and Exploitation of the Mineral Resources of Antarctica” (AAD: B13/197).

  191. 191.

    28 June 1976, “Statement by the Leader of the Australian Delegation”, in: Report of the Australian Delegation (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 4).

  192. 192.

    28 June 1976, RPS-11 (Australia) “Establishment of environment protection arrangements for Antarctica”, in: 10 July 1976, “Final Report of the Special Preparatory Meeting for the Ninth Consultative Meeting of the Antarctic Treaty, Paris 28 June to 10 July 1976” (AU-ATADD-3-BB-AQ-296).

  193. 193.

    28 June 1976, RPS-14 (NZ) Informal Working Paper “Declaration by Consultative Parties to the Antarctic Treaty”, in: 10 July 1976, “Final Report of the Special Preparatory Meeting for the Ninth Consultative Meeting of the Antarctic Treaty, Paris 28 June to 10 July 1976” (AU-ATADD-3-BB-AQ-296). 5 July 1976, PA23705 “Antarctic Preparatory Meeting: Legal and political working group” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 3).

  194. 194.

    12 July 1976, I.PA23975 “Antarctic Preparatory Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 3).

  195. 195.

    13 August 1976, Department of Science briefing to ministerial adviser “Parliamentary briefing note” (NAA: B1387 1991/708 PART 3). 29 July 1976, Arthur Gavshon “Can peace be kept in Antarctic?” The Mercury. 20 December 1976 “Polar race to uncover mineral riches” The Australian.

  196. 196.

    July 1976, “Report of the Australian Delegation to the Special Preparatory Meeting of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties on the Exploration and Exploitation of the Mineral Resources of Antarctica” (AAD: B13/197).

  197. 197.

    16 September 1976, Department of Science “Antarctic policy: Post Paris meeting re-appraisal” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 3).

  198. 198.

    16 November 1976, “Draft Minutes of IDC on Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 2).

  199. 199.

    8 October 1976 and 19 October 1976, submissions to Minister for Science (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 2 and NAA: B1387 1991/748).

  200. 200.

    19 November 1976, “Record of Legal and Political Working Group on Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1991/748).

  201. 201.

    14 January 1977, Department of Environment, Housing and Community Development “Antarctica: Environmental policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 3).

  202. 202.

    23 March 1977, Memorandum 258, AHC Wellington “NZ: Cabinet Submission on Antarctic Policy” (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 3). 18 March 1977 “Exploitation of Antarctic seen as certain” New Zealand Herald, 12.

  203. 203.

    12 January 1977, “Note for file” (NAA: B1387 1991/748).

  204. 204.

    28 February 1977, WH44953 “Antarctic resources” (NAA: B1387 77/177).

  205. 205.

    9 May 1977, BU3211 “Antarctica—non-living resources” (NAA: B1387 77/177).

  206. 206.

    10 June 1977, UN 8444 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 77/176 PART 1).

  207. 207.

    26 June 1977, UN8498 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 77/176 PART 1).

  208. 208.

    21 July 1977, BU3427 “Antarctica—ANZUS meeting” (NAA: B1387 77/176 PART 1).

  209. 209.

    19 July 1977, CH544512 “Antarctica: Australian policy” (NAA: B1387 77/176 PART 1).

  210. 210.

    11 August 1977, Memorandum 376, Australian Embassy Berne to Department of Foreign Affairs “Antarctica—the Ninth Consultative Meeting 19 September to 7 October 1977—resources issues” (NAA: B1387 77/176 PART 2).

  211. 211.

    Philip W Quigg, A Pole Apart: The Emerging Issue of Antarctica (New Press, 1983), 196–97. Jonathan I. Charney, The New Nationalism and the Use of Common Spaces (Allanheld, Osmun), 186–87.

  212. 212.

    14 July 1977, CH542725 “ANZUS: Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 77/176 PART 1).

  213. 213.

    13 August 1977, letter from Brian Talboys, Minister for Foreign Affairs, Wellington to Andrew Peacock, Minister for Foreign Affairs, Canberra (NAA: B1387 77/177).

  214. 214.

    9 September 1977, Memorandum, New Zealand High Commission “Ninth ATCM” (NAA: B1387 77/176 PART 2). See also opening address: https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM9/wp/ATCM9_wp067_e.pdf (accessed 26 March 2020).

  215. 215.

    Antarctic Treaty, Report of the First Special Consultative Meeting, Held at London 25, 27 and 29 July 1977 (Her Majesty’s Stationery Office (London), 1979). A state can achieve ATCP status by conducting substantial Antarctic research.

  216. 216.

    Report of the Ninth Consultative Meeting, London 19 September-7 October 1977 (London: Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 1977), 6–8.

  217. 217.

    Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, A Preliminary Assessment of the Environmental Impact of Mineral Exploration/Exploitation in Antarctica (EAMREA), ed. J H Zumberge (SCAR, 1977).

  218. 218.

    3 October 1977, ANT/IX/78 “Draft recommendation on Antarctic mineral resources” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM9/wp/ATCM9_wp078_e.pdf (accessed 5 March 2020).

  219. 219.

    September 1977, “Report of the Australian Delegation to the Antarctic Treaty Ninth Consultative Meeting, London, 19 September-7 October 1977” (AAD: B13/186), 16.

  220. 220.

    10 October 1977, BU3609 “Ninth Antarctic Consultative Meeting—round up” (NAA: B1387 76/176 PART 4).

  221. 221.

    Antarctic Treaty, Recommendation IX-1 “Antarctic Mineral Resources” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/117 (accessed 26 March 2020).

  222. 222.

    September 1977, “Report of the Australian Delegation to the Antarctic Treaty Ninth Consultative Meeting, London, 19 September-7 October 1977” (AAD: B13/186).

  223. 223.

    Antarctic Treaty, Recommendation IX-2 “Antarctic Marine Living Resources” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/118 (accessed 26 March 2020). “Conservation” was defined as including rational use: Antarctic Treaty, Report of the Ninth Consultative Meeting, London 19 September-7 October 1977, para 10.

  224. 224.

    8 October 1977, LH87624 “Ninth Antarctic Consultative Meeting—round up” (NAA: B1387 1976/33 PART 1).

  225. 225.

    12 October 1977, AAP “Australia successful at Antarctica conference” The Canberra Times, 9.

  226. 226.

    https://www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation/camlr-convention-text. CCAMLR entered into force on 7 April 1982.

  227. 227.

    CCAMLR’s operation is examined in: Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, 122–46. Olav Schram Stokke, “The Effectiveness of CCAMLR,” in Governing the Antarctic, ed. Olav Schram Stokke and Davor Vidas (Cambridge University Press, 1996), 120–51. Stuart Kaye, Marcus Haward, and Robert Hall, “Managing Marine Living Resources, the 1970s-1990s,” in Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System: 50 Years of Influence, ed. Marcus Haward and Tom Griffiths (UNSW Press, 2011), 164–80.

  228. 228.

    14 February 1978, UN10534 “Antarctic policy” (NAA: B1387 1989/362 PART 2).

  229. 229.

    26 April 1978 speech reproduced in: Talboys, “New Zealand and the Antarctic Treaty.”

  230. 230.

    9 May 1978, Department of Science, brief to minister (NAA: B1387 1991/697 PART 4).

  231. 231.

    6 July 1979, WH79254 “Antarctica: Minerals: Meeting on legal and political issues” (NAA: B1387 1991/897 PART 1).

  232. 232.

    June 1979, briefing material “Meeting to consider legal and political aspects of mineral resource issues” (NAA: B1387 1991/897 PART 1).

  233. 233.

    Edward E. Honnold, “Thaw in International Law? Rights in Antarctica under the Law of Common Spaces,” The Yale Law Journal 87, no. 4 (1978): 807–29. 15 August 1979, Department of Science, note for file “Thaw in international law” (NAA: B1387 1991/748).

  234. 234.

    Alan Renouf, The Frightened Country (Macmillan, 1979), 526. 21 August 1979, “Antarctic territory” Canberra Times, 2.

  235. 235.

    13 September 1979, TK11781 “Antarctica—Japanese oil survey” (NAA: B1387 1991/822).

  236. 236.

    2 June 1978, letter Martin Peebles (ALP) to Senator Webster (NAA: B1387 1991/633 PART 2).

  237. 237.

    1 August 1979, letter from Antarctic Defence Coalition “Re: Antarctic Treaty signatories 10th Consultative Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/897 PART 2).

  238. 238.

    3 August 1979, letter from Friends of the Earth (NAA: B1387 1991/897 PART 3).

  239. 239.

    12 September 1979, letter from Peacock to Mosley (NAA: B1387 1991/897 PART 2).

  240. 240.

    5 September 1979, BU5406 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1991/897 PART 2).

  241. 241.

    19 September 1979, WH81714 “Antarctica: Xth ATCM” (NAA: B1387 1979/46 PART 2).

  242. 242.

    19 September 1979, Graeme Beaton “Australia’s claim angers diplomats” The Australian.

  243. 243.

    21 September 1979, WH81826 “Antarctica: Xth ATCM: Media coverage” (NAA: B1387 1979/46 PART 2). 22 September 1979, WH81825 “Antarctica: Xth ATCM: Media coverage” (NAA: B1387 1979/46 PART 2).

  244. 244.

    Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol II, 202–03.

  245. 245.

    This proclamation reflected Australia’s position in the marine living resources discussions, not the minerals debate. Ibid., Vol 2, 208–09. Kaye, Johnson, and Baird, “Law,” at endnote 49.

  246. 246.

    June 1979, briefing material “Meeting to consider legal and political aspects of mineral resource issues” (NAA: B1387 1991/897 PART 1).

  247. 247.

    20 September 1979, ANT/X/20 “The Report of the Group of Ecological Technological and Other Related Experts on Mineral Exploration and Exploitation in Antarctica” (AU-ATADD-2-BB-AQ-46). James H Zumberge, ed. Possible Environmental Effects of Mineral Exploration and Exploitation in Antarctica (Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, 1979).

  248. 248.

    1 October 1979, WH82131 “Antarctica: X ATCM roundup” (NAA: B1387 1979/46 PART 2).

  249. 249.

    10 October 1979, UN15450 “Antarctica: Xth ATCM” (NAA: B1387 1979/46 PART 2).

  250. 250.

    Antarctic Treaty, Recommendation X-1 “Antarctic Mineral Resources” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/123 (accessed 2 March 2020).

  251. 251.

    11 October 1979, UN15456 “Antarctic: Xth ATCM: Summary” (NAA: B1387 1979/46 PART 2). The ellipticity relied on the 1977 “moratorium” which depended on “progress towards timely adoption”.

  252. 252.

    15 November 1979, CH857295 “Antarctica: Mineral resources meeting” (NAA: B1387 1991/822).

  253. 253.

    5 March 1980, CH877176 “Antarctica: Mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 1991/822). Participating companies were to include Exxon, Phillips, Conoco, Mobile and Chevron.

  254. 254.

    24 March 1980, Marine Action Centre, Ross Burton and Michael Kennedy letter to Prime Minister Fraser (NAA: B1387 1991/822). It was co-signed by 16 other environment groups.

  255. 255.

    24 November 1980, Alan Goodall “Japan joins the rush for a slice of the ice” The Australian, 10.

  256. 256.

    24 November 1980, CH929482 “Antarctic minerals” (NAA: B1387 96/893) and 27 November 1980, TK18052 “Japanese geological survey of Antarctic” (NAA: B1387 81/676). It was understood that if data was shared the activity would not be subject to the moratorium as, by its nature, exploration would demand commercial confidentiality. 10 December 1980, WH98180 “Antarctic mineral meeting: Report of the first two days” (NAA: B1387 96/893).

  257. 257.

    19 March 1981, “Antarctica: Japanese survey of the Bellingshausen Sea” (NAA: B1387 81/676).

  258. 258.

    22 September 1980, Memorandum WH8539 from Australian Embassy Washington “Antarctica: Mineral resources regime” (NAA: B1387 1991/822).

  259. 259.

    9 December 1980, WH98121 “Antarctica—mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 96/893).

  260. 260.

    The predicted UNGA debates are summarised in: Rohan Tepper and Marcus Haward, “The Development of Malaysia’s Position on Antarctica: 1982 to 2004,” Polar Record 41, no. 2 (2005).

  261. 261.

    11 December 1980, WH98220 “Antarctica—mineral resources—USSR attitudes” (NAA: B1387 96/893).

  262. 262.

    10 December 1980, WH98180 “Antarctic mineral meeting: Report of the first two days” (NAA: B1387 96/893).

  263. 263.

    12 December 1980, WH98237 “Antarctica: Mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 96/893).

  264. 264.

    13 December 1980, WH98296 “Antarctica—minerals discussions—round-up” (NAA: B1387 96/893).

  265. 265.

    16 January 1981, Memorandum BU2609, Australian Embassy Berne “Antarctica—mineral resources—meeting in Washington 8–12 December 1980” (NAA: B1387 81/681).

  266. 266.

    23 February 1981, BA12202 “Antarctica: Preparatory Meeting-meeting of claimant state delegations” (NAA: B1387 1981/399 PART 2).

  267. 267.

    24 February 1981, BA12217 “Antarctica: Preparatory Meeting”; and 3 March 1981, BA12285 “Antarctica XI-ATCM Preparatory Meeting” (NAA: B1387 81/681).

  268. 268.

    25 February 1981, BA12229 “Antarctica: Preparatory Meeting” (NAA: B1387 81/681).

  269. 269.

    Most interpretations were that Article IV does not prevent actions such as issuing licences, just that such action cannot later be used to substantiate a sovereign claim. The reporting cablegram was annotated “this is why an Article IV type of solution is dangerous”. 3 March 1981, BA12279 “Antarctica—minerals regime—USA/New Zealand/Australia discussions” (NAA: B1387 81/681).

  270. 270.

    3 March 1981, BA12281 “Antarctica—mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 81/681).

  271. 271.

    3 March 1981, BA12285 “Antarctica XI—ATCM Preparatory Meeting” (NAA: B1387 81/681).

  272. 272.

    21 April 1981, WH2769 “Antarctic: Mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 96/894).

  273. 273.

    5 June 1981, CH966835 “Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting: Mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 96/895).

  274. 274.

    11 June 1981, LH2540 “Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting: Mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 96/895).

  275. 275.

    11 June 1981, BS5508 “Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting: Mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 1980/448 PART 1).

  276. 276.

    11 June 1981, MS13988 “Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting: Mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 1980/448 PART 1). 18 June 1981, PA90085 “XIth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting—mineral resources: French approach” (NAA: B1387 96/895).

  277. 277.

    In March 1981, the Federal Republic of Germany achieved ATCP status, taking the total to seven non-claimants and seven claimants.

  278. 278.

    Antarctic Treaty, Report of the Eleventh Consultative Meeting (Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship (Buenos Aires) 1981), 37–39.

  279. 279.

    1 July 1981, BA13057 “Antarctica—XI ATCM—mineral resources” (NAA: B1387 96/895).

  280. 280.

    Antarctic Treaty, Recommendation XI-1 “Antarctic mineral resources” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/133 (accessed 11 March 2020).

  281. 281.

    7 July 1981, BA13118 “Antarctica-XI ATCM” (NAA: B1387 1980/448 PART 2).

  282. 282.

    July 1981, C. G. McCue “Report on attendance at 11th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting” (NAA: B1387 1980/448 PART 2).

  283. 283.

    New Zealand had expected minerals negotiations to conclude in 1983. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 148 and 51.

  284. 284.

    21 November 1981, Alan Goodall “Japan cool on oil exploration” Weekend Australian. The article provocatively said that an icebreaker was slipping quietly out of Tokyo Bay on a mission Japan was not anxious to talk about.

  285. 285.

    12 December 1981, CH1559 “Antarctica: Japanese offshore surveys” and 17 December 1981, TK24182 “Japan—Antarctic surveys” (NAA: B1387 81/676).

  286. 286.

    The survey produced unremarkable results. K Kimura, “Geological and Geophysical Survey in the Bellingshausen Basin, Off Antarctica,” Antarctic Record of the Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition 75 (1982).

  287. 287.

    Resolution XII at the 15th General Assembly of the IUCN, 11–23 October 1981, reproduced in: Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents, Vol I, 515.

  288. 288.

    Beck, The International Politics of Antarctica, 83–85.

  289. 289.

    23 April 1982 “Argentinians report S Atlantic oil find” The Age. Christopher C Joyner, “Anglo-Argentine Rivalry after the Falklands/Malvinas War: Law, Geopolitics, and the Antarctic Connection,” University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 15, no. 3 (1984): 496–97.

  290. 290.

    8 April 1982, CH27582 “Antarctic minerals meeting—Falkland Islands” (NAA: B1387 1981/342).

  291. 291.

    5 May 1982, WH16686 “Falklands—implications for Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 1981/342). US insistence on “business as usual” prevailed, as did US refusal to relay through Palmer Station any military messages on behalf of the United Kingdom.

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    Andrew Jackson

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Jackson, A. (2021). Antarctic Mining Might Be Possible: From Finding Gold to 1982. In: Who Saved Antarctica? . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78405-8_2

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