Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Conclusions

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Who Saved Antarctica?

  • 184 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter seeks to answer the question posed by the book’s title. It starts by considering whether Antarctica was indeed saved and, if so, from what. It then looks at the question of ‘who?’ and assesses the competing and complementary claims of Prime Ministers, presidents and others (and there are many) who assert a role, and those whose roles have remained hidden. The roll-call identifies the key political players, diplomats and their advisers. It also identifies the officials, scientists, environmentalists, media representatives and others who can also legitimately claim to have played an important part. Consensus on protecting the environment was the objective, as well as consensus on the future of the Antarctic Treaty System. No single individual or single event precipitated the turnaround in attitudes, and the book concludes that how change was affected turned out to be as important as who did it. The book concludes by addressing two unresolved issues: whether mining will ever take place in Antarctica and whether Antarctica will ever be a world park or included on the world heritage list.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    History as a tool for prediction is explored in: Carr, What Is History?, 66–70.

  2. 2.

    Murphy, “Antarctic Conservation: Only by Careful Planning and Cooperation Can We Save This Primeval Region from the Ravages of Man.” Barnes and Porter, Let’s Save Antarctica! Mosley, Saving the Antarctic Wilderness. http://www.greenpeace.org/new-zealand/en/about/history/how-we-saved-antarctica/ (accessed 3 February 2021).

  3. 3.

    Several geologists were emphatic on this. See, for example: John C. Behrendt, “Geophysical and Geological Research in Antarctica Related to the Assessment of Petroleum and Mineral Resources and Potential Environmental Hazards,” in Antarctic Challenge III, ed. Rüdiger Wolfrum (Duncker and Humblot, 1988), 165.

  4. 4.

    Maritime incidents immediately after the Protocol included: Lyubov Orlova (2006); Explorer and Nordkapp (2007); Ushuaia (2008); Ocean Nova (2009); Clelia II and Insung No 1 (2010); Polar Star (2011); and Mar Sem Fim (2012); Fram (2013). At least 15 other incidents damaged tourist vessels in that period. See Liggett, “Destination Icy Wilderness: Tourism in Antarctica,” 389–91.

  5. 5.

    31 May 2019, XLII ATCM/IP 136 (SCAR) “Antarctic Climate Change and the Environment—2019 Update” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM42/ip/ATCM42_ip132_e.doc (accessed 11 January 2021).

  6. 6.

    Sometimes credit is shared with France. See, for example: Elliott, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, 162–66. Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, 150. 30 May 2016, Evan Bloom “The history, vision behind and impact of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty” (25th Anniversary Symposium, Santiago) https://2009-2017.state.gov/e/oes/rls/remarks/2016/258286.htm (accessed 3 February 2021).

  7. 7.

    10 November 2014, transcript “Just call me Bob” (part 1) ABC TV Australian Story. https://www.abc.net.au/austory/just-call-me-bob/5869580 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  8. 8.

    March 2003, Michael Gordon “Bob Hawke on his loves, legacies and life after politics” The Age http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/02/28/1046407750547.html (accessed 3 February 2021).

  9. 9.

    Ryan and Bramston, The Hawke Government: A Critical Retrospective, 419. 14 December 2009, media release “20th anniversary of the Hawke government’s action to protect Antarctica” http://www.antarctica.gov.au/news/2009/20th-anniversary-of-the-hawke-governments-action-to-protect-antarctica (accessed 3 February 2021). 14 December 2009 “Hawke honoured for Antarctic mining fight” http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/12/14/2771530.htm?section=justin (accessed 3 February 2021). 9 July 2016, Nick O’Malley “Bob Hawke: There is not one outstanding leader in the world” http://www.theage.com.au/nsw/bob-hawke-there-is-not-one-outstanding-leader-in-the-world-20160708-gq1kgf.html#ixzz4DrHwk4mM (accessed 3 February 2021). 4 October 2016, Tim Stephens “Australia proved it was an environmental world leader with the Antarctic agreement” Sydney Morning Herald. Hawke and Rielly, Wednesdays with Bob, passim. 18 February 2018, ABC TV “Hawke: the larrikin and the leader” (Series 1, Episode 2), at 42:15 http://www.abc.net.au/tv/programs/hawke-the-larrikin-and-the-leader/ (accessed 3 February 2021). 3 July 2019, House of Representatives Hansard, 4–82. 3 July 2019, Senate Hansard, 6–41.

  10. 10.

    1 January 2015, Troy Bramston “Cabinet Papers 1988–1989: Hot under collar at who saved Antarctica” The Australian. Day, Paul Keating: The Biography, 322–23. Bramston, Paul Keating: The Big Picture Leader, 318–19.

  11. 11.

    Bush, Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents (Looseleaf Volumes), Vol IV, Booklet AU88–89, 21 at footnote 6. Bowden, The Silence Calling: Australians in Antarctica 1947–1997, 410–12. 3 March 1995, Tony Vermeer “Keating tells how he helped save Antarctica” (ATADD-1-BB-AU-718). Keating went on to say that Rocard did write to Hawke, “and it was the Bob and Michel show from there on”. If Rocard wrote to Hawke, this author has not seen it.

  12. 12.

    21 September 1988, letter Keating to Evans (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AU-193). 16 November 1988, facsimile DFAT to Antarctic Division “Summary of outstanding correspondence” (NAA: B1387 88/893 PART 1).

  13. 13.

    27 April 1989, letter Keating to Hawke (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AU-196). 4 May 1989, letter Cook to Hawke (NAA: B1387 88/893 PART 3).

  14. 14.

    12 April 1989, Cabinet Submission “Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: 14039, 6415). Treasury’s objections to CRAMRA refer only to revenue and anti-subsidies: 24 March 1988, AAD brief to minister “Antarctic minerals convention—Cabinet Submission” (NAA: B1387 87/720 PART 2).

  15. 15.

    3 March 1995, Tony Vermeer “Keating tells how he helped save Antarctica” AAP (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AU-718), 2.

  16. 16.

    Keating’s letter said only that he had outlined to Rocard Australia’s policy his personal views on minerals. 27 April 1989, letter Keating to Hawke (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AU-196).

  17. 17.

    Jackson and Boyce, “Mining and ‘World Park Antarctica’,” 251–52. ibid., 251.

  18. 18.

    Bowden, The Silence Calling: Australians in Antarctica 1947–1997, 414.

  19. 19.

    Hawke later said it was as late as May 1989. 9 July 2016, Nick O’Malley “Clout in the cold together” The Age, 25.

  20. 20.

    29 April 1989, Margo Kingston “Libs likely to oppose Antarctic mining” Sydney Morning Herald, 6. 30 April 1989, Alan Fewster “Antarctic park finds an ally in Keating” Sunday Telegraph, 122.

  21. 21.

    The Hawke/Keating rivalry included the November 1988 Kirribilli Agreement, which addressed succession arrangements: Bramston, Paul Keating: The Big Picture Leader. d’Alpuget, Bob Hawke: The Complete Biography. Day, Paul Keating: The Biography, 323.

  22. 22.

    Ryan and Bramston, The Hawke Government: A Critical Retrospective, 419.

  23. 23.

    Graham Richardson, Whatever It Takes (Bantam, 1994). Richardson opposed mining but accepted Departmental advice to support CRAMRA. 12 April 1989, brief to minister’s adviser “Minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 88/893 PART 3). 12 April 1989, Cabinet Submission “Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: 14039, 6415).

  24. 24.

    Evan’s submission was amended on the Saturday, two days before the Cabinet meeting. See 20 May 1989, Cabinet Submission corrigendum “Antarctic minerals convention: further developments” (NAA: 14039, 6506).

  25. 25.

    12 June 1989, ND69271 “India: Minister Evans visit: conversation with Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 4). 29 June 1989, LH77976 “Senator Evans’ discussions in London” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1).

  26. 26.

    Evans achieved infamy in the Tasmanian dams issue by commissioning RAAF surveillance over the state. Evans, “The Background Politics of the Tasmanian Dam Case,” 14.

  27. 27.

    Bill Bush, personal communication, 4 December 2020.

  28. 28.

    Evans and Grant, Australia’s Foreign Relations in the World of the 1990’s, 156–58.

  29. 29.

    Gareth Evans, Incorrigible Optimist: A Political Memoir (Melbourne University Press, 2017), 131. Evans spoke in similar terms at the National Press Club in October 2017: http://iview.abc.net.au/programs/national-press-club-address/NC1706C037S00#playing at 34:55 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  30. 30.

    Emerson, The Boy from Baradine, 186–97.

  31. 31.

    18 February 2018, “Hawke: The larrikin and the leader” (Series 1, Episode 2) ABC TV, at 42:15 http://www.abc.net.au/tv/programs/hawke-the-larrikin-and-the-leader/ (accessed 3 February 2021).

  32. 32.

    6 March 1991, House of Representatives Hansard, 1419.

  33. 33.

    Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 226.

  34. 34.

    Yuri Rubinsky, “Arctic Interests and the Policy of France,” Arctic and North 24 (2016).

  35. 35.

    Antarctic Treaty, Measure 1 (2005) “Annex VI to the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty: Liability Arising from Environmental Emergencies” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/331 (accessed 27 March 2020).

  36. 36.

    Antarctic Treaty, Measure 1 (2003) “Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/294 (accessed 27 March 2020).

  37. 37.

    Richard Woolcott, “Foreword,” in Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System: 50 Years of Influence, ed. Marcus Haward and Tom Griffiths (UNSW Press, 2011), xiv.

  38. 38.

    6 May 1991, letter Evans to McCarthy (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  39. 39.

    8 May 1991, letter McCarthy to Evans (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2).

  40. 40.

    7 May 1991, House of Representatives Hansard, 3068–3069. 7 May 1991, Senate Hansard, 2769.

  41. 41.

    The Public Service Medal is part of the Australian honours system.

  42. 42.

    https://honours.pmc.gov.au/honours/awards/868972 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  43. 43.

    8 July 1993, letter Evans to McMullan, Minister for the Arts and Administrative Services (AAD: 81/346–3). Ayres, Fortunate Voyager: The Worlds of Ninian Stephen, 133–36.

  44. 44.

    5 December 1990, SC21441 “Antarctic—SCM—minerals outcome” (AAD: 89/914–2).

  45. 45.

    Christopher C. Joyner, “1988 Antarctic Minerals Convention,” Marine Policy Reports 1, no. 1 (1989): 81.

  46. 46.

    4 December 1990, SC21437 “Antarctic environment: SCM XI: Minerals” (AAD: 89/914–2). 26 April 1991, MA26855 “Antarctic instrument: Minerals” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 1).

  47. 47.

    29 May 1973, “Prepared remarks by Ambassador Edvard Hambro” (NAA: B1387 1991/370).

  48. 48.

    May 1989, PREP/WP/1 “Information paper, presented by the Delegation of Chile” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 1). 9 May 1989, PA74190 “Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 1).

  49. 49.

    May 1989, “ATCM XV—Prep” (AWJ personal notes).

  50. 50.

    Andersen, “Negotiating a New Regime: How CRAMRA Came into Existence,” 96–97.

  51. 51.

    1 December 1989, BS48709 “Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 89/932 PART 1). This contrasts with later observations that the British tended to act for the United States. See 19 June 1990, SC20769 “Antarctica: Chile’s policy and the SCM” (AAD: 89/914–1).

  52. 52.

    7 June 1989, DFAT facsimile message “CRAMRA: UK legislation” covering a copy of “Antarctic Minerals Bill (HL)” (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 3).

  53. 53.

    Richardson, “John Arnfield Heap, CMG,” 265.

  54. 54.

    Robert Carrick, “Conservation of Nature in Antarctica,” ibid.10, no. 68 (1961). Murphy, “Antarctic Conservation: Only by Careful Planning and Cooperation Can We Save This Primeval Region from the Ravages of Man.”

  55. 55.

    Elliott, “Recommendation 5: Establishment of Antarctica as a World Park under United Nations Auspices,” 443–44. Murphy, “Antarctica: The Urgency of Protecting Life on and around the Great Southerly Continent,” 22.

  56. 56.

    Behrendt published eight such papers between 1981 and 1991, all concluding there are no known petroleum or mineral resources. For example: John C. Behrendt, “Recent Geophysical and Geological Research in Antarctica Related to the Assessment of Petroleum Resources and Potential Environmental Hazards to Their Development,” in Mineral Resources Potential of Antarctica, ed. John F. Splettstoesser and Gisela A. Dreschhoff, Antarctic Research Series 51 (American Geophysical Union, 1990), 163.

  57. 57.

    Richardson, Whatever It Takes. John Howard, Lazarus Rising: A Personal and Political Autobiography (HarperCollins, 2011). David Lange, My Life (Viking, 2005). Geoffrey Palmer, Reform: A Memoir (Victoria University Press, 2013).

  58. 58.

    Moore, Beyond Today: A Look at a Sustainable Economy, Resource Management and Control and a History of Environmental Politics in New Zealand, 72.

  59. 59.

    15 May 1990, Michael McCarthy “Major adds weight to Antarctic mining ban” The Australian, 10.

  60. 60.

    George Bush, “Statement on the environmental protection protocol to the Antarctic Treaty, 3 July 1991” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29657 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  61. 61.

    Hawke asserted that he influenced Bush’s decision by writing to him the previous week—this is impossible to verify as US hesitation triggered representations from several Parties and NGOs. See 5 July 1991, Greg Austin, “Bush comes around on Antarctic mining ban” Sydney Morning Herald, 5.

  62. 62.

    This was described as “the Cousteau method”. See 20 September 1989, PA76733 “Antarctica—Wellington Convention—interview with Cousteau” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  63. 63.

    Bergin, “The Politics of Antarctic Minerals: The Greening of White Australia,” 222–25. Francioni, “The Madrid Protocol on the Protection of the Antarctic Environment,” 49. Elliott, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, 194–95. Chaturvedi, The Polar Regions, 212. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 270–96. Clark, “The Antarctic Environmental Protocol: NGOs in the Protection of Antarctica.”

  64. 64.

    Apart from ASOC, Australian groups included the Antarctic Defence Coalition, Fund for Animals, Project Jonah, Greenpeace Australia, Australian Conservation Foundation, Ecofund and World Wildlife Fund. United States groups included Defenders of Wildlife, Environmental Defense Fund, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, Humane Society, National Audubon Society, National Wildlife Federation, Natural Resources Defense Council, Sierra Club, The Antarctica Project, and The Wilderness Society.

  65. 65.

    27 August 1990, CH595660 “Antarctica: NZ position” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 2). Scully, “The Development of the Antarctic Treaty System,” 36.

  66. 66.

    14 October 1992, House of Representatives Hansard, 2156.

  67. 67.

    4 October 1991, speech by Senator Gareth Evans “Antarctica: An international environment win for Australia” (AU-ATADD-1-BB-AU-354), 2. https://honours.pmc.gov.au/honours/awards/878250 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  68. 68.

    J.G. Mosley, “Antarctica: The Case for a World Wilderness Park,” in Fighting for Wilderness, ed. J G Mosley and J Messer (Fontana/ACF, 1984).

  69. 69.

    27 August 1990, WL41558 “New Zealand: environmental groups” (NAA: B1387 90/759 PART 2).

  70. 70.

    Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, “Congratulations, Cath,” ECO LXXX, no. 1 (1991). See also: https://www.goldmanprize.org/recipient/cath-wallace/ (accessed 3 February 2021).

  71. 71.

    10 May 1990, transcript ABC Radio Early AM “UK campaign to join Aust in opposing Antarctic minerals convention” (NAA: B1387 90/498 PART 1).

  72. 72.

    https://www.asoc.org/about/history/1118 (accessed 3 February 2021). Barnes, who founded ASOC in 1978, had an extraordinarily long association with Antarctic campaigns. See https://www.asoc.org/about/history (accessed 3 February 2021).

  73. 73.

    https://www.huffingtonpost.com/kelly-rigg/we-saved-antarctica-or-di_b_5344635.html (accessed 3 February 2021). Credit is also given to Kelly Rigg in: 23 February 2020, “Saving Antarctica” The History Hour BBC World Service, https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3csypzz (accessed 6 April 2020), 1:20–10:20.

  74. 74.

    Mosley, Saving the Antarctic Wilderness.

  75. 75.

    Clark Lee Merriam, “The Cousteau Society/Foundation Cousteau: Retrospective of 1990 Activities,” Colorado Jourmal of International Environmental Law and Policy 2 (1991): 326–28.

  76. 76.

    Shortis, ““Who Can Resist This Guy?” Jacques Cousteau, Celebrity Diplomacy, and the Environmental Protection of the Antarctic,” 366–67.

  77. 77.

    11 July 1989, PA75294 “Prime Minister’s meeting with President Mitterrand: Antarctica” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1). “Jacques Cousteau’s Visit to Australia,” 81. See also: https://honours.pmc.gov.au/honours/awards/878276 (accessed 3 February 2021).

  78. 78.

    http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/frozen-asset—1989/2842018 (accessed 3 February 2021). The program later achieved a gold award at the New York Film and Television Festival: Robert Raymond, “Frozen Assets,” Panorama: Ansett Airlines inflight magazine, no. 92 [April] (1990): 32.

  79. 79.

    http://mpegmedia.abc.net.au/news/fourcorners/50years/video/4c_50yrs_TonyJones_frozenassets_288p.mp4 (accessed 3 February 2021). 25 February 2017, Martin Butler “Five places that made me” The Age (Traveller section), 5.

  80. 80.

    http://iview.abc.net.au/programs/four-corners-55th-anniversary/NC1627H003S00#playing (accessed 3 February 2021).

  81. 81.

    7 August 1991, DFAT minute “Antarctic environment treaty—Australian Conservation Foundation” (AAD: 91/919).

  82. 82.

    1 August 1991, CE57547 “Antarctica: SCM XI final session, Madrid, October: USSR views” (AAD: 91/919).

  83. 83.

    5 September 1989, PA76409 “Protection of Antarctic environment-France” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 2).

  84. 84.

    29 May 1989, transcript of interview, Good Morning NZ Radio NZ (NAA: B1387 89/311 PART 2).

  85. 85.

    Jackson and Kriwoken, “The Protocol in Action, 1992–2010,” 300–01.

  86. 86.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative, Madrid, 22–30 April 1991; 17–22 June 1991; 3–4 October 1991, 173.

  87. 87.

    February 1993, UK Foreign & Commonwealth Office brochure “Britain’s role in Antarctica” (AAD: 94/55), 12. 7 December 2016, speech by Alan Duncan MP “The UK’s leading role in protecting the Antarctic” https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-uks-leading-role-in-protecting-the-antarctic (accessed 12 December 2016).

  88. 88.

    Jacobsson, “Building the International Legal Framework for Antarctica,” 10.

  89. 89.

    23 February 2020, “Saving Antarctica” The History Hour BBC World Service, https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3csypzz (accessed 6 April 2020), 7:05.

  90. 90.

    Elliott, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, 165. Joyner, “The Effectiveness of CRAMRA,” 163. Howkins, The Polar Regions: An Environmental History, 16–17.

  91. 91.

    Davor Vidas, ed. Implementing the Environmental Protection Regime for the Antarctic (Kluwer, 2000). C. J. Bastmeijer, The Antarctic Environmental Protocol and Its Domestic Legal Implementation, International Environmental Law and Policy Series: V. 65 (Kluwer, 2003). Jackson and Kriwoken, “The Protocol in Action, 1992–2010.” Lorne Kriwoken and Tom Maggs, “Environment,” ibid.

  92. 92.

    Elliott, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, 162.

  93. 93.

    3 October 1989, Greenpeace Australia facsimile “Testimony on CRAMRA in France” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3). Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 145 and 97.

  94. 94.

    8 September 1989, BO46791 “Environment—Antarctica: Visit to Bonn by Sir Ninian Stephen” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 3).

  95. 95.

    Joyner, “CRAMRA: The Ugly Duckling of the Antarctic Treaty System?”; and “The Effectiveness of CRAMRA,” 165.

  96. 96.

    These remarks were made at a 2001 Wilton Park conference (AAD: 01/616C).

  97. 97.

    Christopher Beeby, speech presented to International Bar Association, Auckland 13 October 1988 (NAA: B1387 88/893 PART 2).

  98. 98.

    Joyner, “The Effectiveness of CRAMRA,” 165.

  99. 99.

    For example, the requirement for sufficient information to make environmental assessments: Scully, “The Development of the Antarctic Treaty System,” 35. It established principles for Antarctic environmental liability and found ways to manage resources in the absence of universally recognised sovereignty: Jacobsson, “Building the International Legal Framework for Antarctica,” 10. CRAMRA’s lessons for the International Seabed Authority are discussed in: Nicholas R. Kirkham, K. M. Gjerde, and A. M. W. Wilson, “Deep-Sea Mining: Policy Options to Preserve the Last Frontier—Lessons from Antarctica’s Mineral Resource Convention,” Marine Policy 115 (2020).

  100. 100.

    Joyner, “The Effectiveness of CRAMRA,” 171.

  101. 101.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Sixteenth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Bonn, 7–18 October 1991, 197.

  102. 102.

    John A. Heap, ed. Handbook of the Antarctic Treaty System, 8th ed. (US Department of State, 1994), 2002. Heap may be suggesting that the ideas originated in Chile’s May 1989 proposal for a separate consolidation of environmental measures.

  103. 103.

    Francioni, “The Madrid Protocol on the Protection of the Antarctic Environment.” Francisco Orrego Vicuña, “The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty: Questions of Effectiveness,” Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 7 (1994). Chaturvedi, The Polar Regions, 206–12. Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, 163–74. Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 317–18. Jackson, “Politics, Diplomacy and the Creation of Antarctic Consensus.”

  104. 104.

    The Protocol and its mining ban apply to the Treaty area defined in Article VI, which leaves unresolved the Antarctic high seas.

  105. 105.

    Serge Pannatier, “Acquisition of Consultative Status under the Antarctic Treaty,” Polar Record 30, no. 173 (1994).

  106. 106.

    Doaa Abdel-Motaal, Antarctica: The Battle for the Seventh Continent (Praeger, 2016), 213–14.

  107. 107.

    Howkins, The Polar Regions: An Environmental History, 167. Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, 179–80.

  108. 108.

    Interpretations vary. For the view that a moratorium is intended, see Redgwell, “Antarctica: Wilderness Park or Eldorado Postponed?” 137. For the view that a moratorium is time-limited, see Philippe Sands et al., Principles of International Environmental Law, Third ed. (Cambridge University Press, 2012), 586–87. For suggestions that a review conference is likely, see Ben Saul and Tim Stephens, eds., Antarctica in International Law (Hart, 2015), lxvi. For the interplay between permanent prohibition, prohibition, permanent moratorium and moratorium, see Donald Rothwell and Ruth Davis, Antarctic Environmental Protection: A Collection of Australian and International Instruments (Federation Press, 1997), 30–32.

  109. 109.

    In addition, numerous media articles and websites conflate the Protocol and the Treaty, asserting that the Treaty itself expires in 2048. See, for example: 28 August 2015, Adam Lockyer “A cold war on Australia’s doorstep” https://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/adam-lockyer/a-cold-war-on-australias-doorstep_b_8046812.html (accessed 8 September 2015).

  110. 110.

    Robert Swan, Antarctica 2041: My Quest to Save the Earth’s Last Wilderness (Broadway, 2009). The reference to 2041 derives from a misunderstanding of Protocol Article 25. The special review provision becomes available in 2048, 50 years after the Protocol’s 1998 entry into force, not its 1991 adoption. The name of an entire organisation is based on this error: https://2041foundation.org/about-us/ (accessed 6 January 2021). See also: “Robert Swan: Let’s save the last pristine continent” https://www.ted.com/talks/robert_swan_let_s_save_the_last_pristine_continent/transcript?language=en at 1:38 (accessed 4 May 2015); and “Protecting Antarctica beyond 2041: an interview with Robert Swan” https://news.mongabay.com/2019/07/protecting-antarctica-beyond-2041-an-interview-with-polar-explorer-robert-swan/ (accessed 26 July 2019).

  111. 111.

    Dufek, Through the Frozen Frontier, 171–86. Law, Antarctica 1984.

  112. 112.

    US Congress Office of Technology Assessment, Polar Prospects: A Minerals Treaty for Antarctica, 3.

  113. 113.

    1 May 2016, transcript of ABC TV Australian Story “The polariser” http://www.abc.net.au/austory/the-polariser/9173734 (accessed 15 June 2015).

  114. 114.

    28 November 1988, Sue Neales “Treaty members carve up Antarctic” Australian Financial Review, 13.

  115. 115.

    11 July 2006, Senate Hansard, Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport References Committee “Australia’s future oil supply and alternative transport fuels”, 4–6. 14 July 2006, Andrew Darby “Oil hungry world may turn to Antarctica” The Age.

  116. 116.

    International Energy Agency, “World Energy Outlook 2010: Executive Summary,” International Energy Agency. 14 November 2010, John Collins Rudolph “Is ‘peak oil’ behind us?” New York Times.

  117. 117.

    Unlike CRAMRA, the Protocol does not define mineral resource activities. The distinction between science and prospecting is important—the former is subject to the Treaty’s provision for free exchange of scientific results. Prospecting usually implies the non-disclosure of commercially sensitive data.

  118. 118.

    See, for example: Lebedeva and Petukhov, “Russia Decides to Return to the Antarctic with Serious Intentions and for Long.” 4 November 2010, “Ukraine to look for oil, gas in Antarctic” http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/88645/#ixzz14LszFKUO (accessed 5 November 2010). Russia denies it has disguised prospecting—see, for example: XXV ATCM IP-014 (Russian Federation) “Russian scientific geological research in Antarctica in context of Article 7 of the Madrid Protocol” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Documents/56 (accessed 23 March 2020). Russian intentions continue to the subject of speculation, for example: https://jamestown.org/program/is-russia-preparing-to-challenge-the-status-quo-in-antarctica-part-two/ (accessed 3 February 2021). For speculation about China’s intentions, see Anne-Marie Brady, China as a Polar Great Power (Cambridge University Press, 2017), 201–07. Clive Hamilton, Silent Invasion: China’s Influence in Australia (Hardie Grant, 2018), 252–54.

  119. 119.

    “Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty”, Article 25.

  120. 120.

    Templeton, Protecting Antarctica: The Development of the Treaty System, 50. A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 316.

  121. 121.

    A. J. Press, “The Antarctic Treaty System: Future Mining Faces Many Mathematical Challenges,” in The Yearbook of Polar Law, ed. Gudmundur Alfredsson, Timo Koivurova, and Julia Jabour (Brill Nijhoff, 2015). Sean Coburn, “Eyeing 2048: Antarctic Treaty System’s Mining Ban,” Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 42, no. 2 (2017).

  122. 122.

    Joyner, “The Effectiveness of CRAMRA,” 171. See also: https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/about-us/who-we-are/treaties/convention-on-the-regulation-of-antarctic-mineral-resource-activities/ (accessed 22 July 2015).

  123. 123.

    Redgwell, “Antarctica: Wilderness Park or Eldorado Postponed?” 141.

  124. 124.

    Mahlon C. Kennicutt, “Looking to the Future: The Poles in 2058,” Antarctic Science 21, no. 2 (2009): 97.

  125. 125.

    Department of Industry Science Energy and Resources Australia, “Australian Petroleum Statistics,” (2020), Table 7. https://www.energy.gov.au/sites/default/files/Australian%20Petroleum%20Statistics%20-%20Issue%20292%20November%202020.pdf (accessed 4 February 2021).

  126. 126.

    Claire Mason et al., “Charting the Territory: Exploring Stakeholder Reactions to the Prospect of Seafloor Exploration and Mining in Australia,” Marine Policy 34 (2010). Social Licence exists when industry activity or government policy has “ongoing approval within the local community and other stakeholders”. http://socialicense.com/definition.html (accessed 30 September 2019).

  127. 127.

    11 July 2006, Senate Hansard, Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport References Committee “Australia’s future oil supply and alternative transport fuels”, 4. At the time of writing, oil was around $US60 per barrel.

  128. 128.

    Antarctic Treaty, Final Report of the Thirty-Fourth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Buneos Aires, 20 June – 1 July 2011 (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011), 19–20. Antarctic Treaty, Resolution 1 (2011) “Strengthening support for the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty” https://ats.aq/devAS/Meetings/Measure/494 (accessed 10 March 2020). Final Report of the Thirty-Fifth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Hobart, Australia 11–20 June 2012 (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2012), 23–24.

  129. 129.

    Santiago Declaration on the 25th Anniversary of the signing of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, in: Final Report of the Thirty-Ninth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Santiago, Chile 23 May-1 June 2016 (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2016), 183–84.

  130. 130.

    8 July 2019, “Prague Declaration on the Occasion of the Sixtieth Anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty” in: Final Report of the Forty-second Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Volume 1, 209–211 https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM42/fr/ATCM42_fr001_e.pdf (accessed 26 March 2020).

  131. 131.

    Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960. Rowland, “The Treaty Regime and the Politics of the Consultative Parties,” 12. Trachtenberg, The Craft of International History: A Guide to Method, 75–76, 97–99.

  132. 132.

    Paltridge and Jabour, “Antarctica and the Madrid Protocol,” 2.

  133. 133.

    Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment, 285.

  134. 134.

    Stokke, “Domestic Politics and ATS Change: Introductory Assessment,” 327–28.

  135. 135.

    Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 279–81.

  136. 136.

    3 August 1990, WH119515 “Antarctica: Australian/French initiative. US views” (NAA: B1387 90/498 PART 3). 15 April 1991, WH129765 “Antarctica: Four-country representations: US views” (NAA: B1387 90/888 PART 3). 16 May 1991, WH131025 “Antarctica: SCMXI second session: US views” (NAA: B1387 91/32 PART 2). 1 July 1991, WH132790 “Antarctica: SCM XI—environment protection protocol” (AAD: 91/226–2).

  137. 137.

    Bergin, “The Politics of Antarctic Minerals: The Greening of White Australia,” 232–33.

  138. 138.

    Evans and Grant, Australia’s Foreign Relations in the World of the 1990’s, 157.

  139. 139.

    Klaus Dodds and Mark Nuttall, The Scramble for the Poles (Wiley, 2016), 81.

  140. 140.

    Article IV of the Treaty provides only that such actions cannot later be used to assert, support or deny sovereignty.

  141. 141.

    Daniel Bray, “The Geopolitics of Antarctic Governance: Sovereignty and Strategic Denial in Australia’s Antarctic Policy,” Australian Journal of International Affairs 70, no. 3 (2016).

  142. 142.

    Rowland, “The Treaty Regime and the Politics of the Consultative Parties,” 26–27.

  143. 143.

    Andersen, “Negotiating a New Regime: How CRAMRA Came into Existence,” 99–102. Peter J Beck, “The Antarctic Resource Conventions Implemented: Consequences for the Sovereignty Issue,” ibid., 246–55.

  144. 144.

    13 August 1977, Letter from Brian Talboys, Minister for Foreign Affairs, Wellington to Andrew Peacock, Minister for Foreign Affairs (NAA: B1387 77/177).

  145. 145.

    For example, submissions to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf with respect to shelves extending from Antarctic claims.

  146. 146.

    J.G. Mosley, “World Park for Antarctica,” Habitat Australia, no. 4 (October) (1989). 29 April 1991, World Wildlife Fund, Press Information “Major progress towards world park for Antarctica”.

  147. 147.

    Howkins, The Polar Regions: An Environmental History, 166.

  148. 148.

    Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, 180.

  149. 149.

    Szabo, State of the Ice: An Overview of Human Impacts in Antarctica, 44–45.

  150. 150.

    Article 11(2) of the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 1972 https://whc.unesco.org/archive/convention-en.pdf (accessed 11 April 2018).

  151. 151.

    Bob Brown, Memo for a Saner World (Penguin, 2004), 153–54. J. G. Mosley, Antarctica: Securing Its Heritage for the Whole World (Envirobook, 2007). Saving the Antarctic Wilderness, 77–100.

  152. 152.

    Bob Brown Foundation, “Supporter Survey” https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/X2QZFG2 (accessed 18 March 2018). https://www.bobbrown.org.au/mr_07_12_2020 (accessed 16 December 2020). October 2014, Geoff Mosley “The next big step: gaining World Heritage recognition for Antarctica” https://www.bobbrown.org.au/gaining_world_heritage_recognition_for_antarctica (accessed 5 March 2020)

  153. 153.

    Mosley’s strategy relies on every Treaty Party endorsing a nomination, without amending the World Heritage Convention. Mosley, Antarctica: Securing Its Heritage for the Whole World, 17–22. More provocatively, Australia would nominate the AAT and encourage other claimants to act likewise. Keith D Suter, World Law and the Last Wilderness, 2nd ed. (Friends of the Earth, 1980), 64–65.

  154. 154.

    18 June 2012, Andrew Darby “Antarctica must go on heritage list—Coalition” https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/antarctica-must-go-on-heritage-list-coalition-20,120,617-20i5r.html (accessed 11 April 2018). 18 June 2012, “Coalition calls for Antarctica world heritage listing” http://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-updates/coalition-calls-for-antarctica-world-heritage-listing/news-story/a65c33810ee76491c69048f79b90ca75 (accessed 11 April 2018).

  155. 155.

    16 June 2012, Tony Press “An own goal in political ice hockey? World Heritage listing for Antarctica could reopen minerals debate” http://theconversation.com/an-own-goal-in-political-ice-hockey-world-heritage-listing-for-antarctica-could-reopen-minerals-debate-7683 (accessed 19 June 2012).

  156. 156.

    With 193 Parties to the World Heritage Convention, inscribing Antarctica on the world heritage list could increase the number of nations recognising Antarctica’s values almost fourfold. Note, however, that the Antarctic Treaty Parties already represent some 64% of the global population http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/ (accessed 11 April 2018).

  157. 157.

    A Party to the Convention can only nominate properties “situated on its territory”. A successful Antarctic nomination implies improbable scenarios of states not recognising claims accepting a claimant’s right to nominate its territory. Bray, “The Geopolitics of Antarctic Governance: Sovereignty and Strategic Denial in Australia’s Antarctic Policy,” 270–71.

  158. 158.

    26 January 2012, “UN Secretary-General outlines ‘The Future We Want’” http://unohrlls.org/news/un-secretary-general-outlines-%C2%93the-future-we-want%C2%94/ (accessed 13 April 2018).

  159. 159.

    https://population.un.org/wpp (accessed 6 January 2020).

  160. 160.

    Chaturvedi, The Polar Regions, 121.

  161. 161.

    Beeby quoted in: Templeton, A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960, 222.

  162. 162.

    Beeby, “The Antarctic Treaty System: Goals, Performance and Impact,” 17.

  163. 163.

    Chaturvedi, The Polar Regions, 132 and 229.

  164. 164.

    Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, 78–79.

  165. 165.

    7 May 1991, House of Representatives Hansard, 3068.

  166. 166.

    29 June 1989, LH77976 “Senator Evans’ discussions in London” (NAA: B1387 89/453 PART 1). 5 December 1990, Ross Peake “Ban on mining unlikely in Antarctic pact” The Age, 5

  167. 167.

    17 May 2019, Peter Hannam, “‘Penguins can’t vote’: Bob Hawke took the long view on the environment” https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/penguins-can-t-vote-bob-hawke-took-the-long-view-on-the-environment-20190517-p51oev.html (accessed 17 May 2019).

  168. 168.

    Evans and Grant, Australia’s Foreign Relations in the World of the 1990’s, 157.

  169. 169.

    5 December 1990, Ross Peake “Ban on mining unlikely in Antarctic pact” The Age, 5.

  170. 170.

    30 May 2016, ATCM39 AD010 (25th Anniversary Symposium) Evan T. Bloom “Remarks on the history, vision behind and impact of the protocol on environmental protection” https://documents.ats.aq/ATCM39/ad/ATCM39_ad010_e.pdf (accessed 26 March 2020).

References

  • Abdel-Motaal, Doaa. Antarctica: The Battle for the Seventh Continent. Praeger, 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, Rolf Trolle. “Negotiating a New Regime: How CRAMRA Came into Existence.” Chap. 7 In The Antarctic Treaty System in World Politics, edited by Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl and Willy Østreng, 94–109: Macmillan/Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition. “Congratulations, Cath.” ECO LXXX, no. 1 (1991): 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antarctic Treaty. Final Report of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Special Consultative, Madrid, 22–30 April 1991; 17–22 June 1991; 3–4 October 1991. Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, 1991a.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. Final Report of the Sixteenth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Bonn, 7–18 October 1991. 1991b.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. Final Report of the Thirty-Fifth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Hobart, Australia 11–20 June 2012. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. Final Report of the Thirty-Fourth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Buneos Aires, 20 June–1 July 2011. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. Final Report of the Thirty-Ninth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Santiago, Chile 23 May-1 June 2016. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment. National Academy Press, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Australia, Department of Industry Science Energy and Resources. “Australian Petroleum Statistics,” 292, (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, Philip. Fortunate Voyager: The Worlds of Ninian Stephen. Miegunyah, 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, James N, and Eliot Porter. Let’s Save Antarctica! Greenhouse Publications, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bastmeijer, C J. The Antarctic Environmental Protocol and Its Domestic Legal Implementation. International Environmental Law and Policy Series: V. 65. Kluwer, 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, Peter J. “The Antarctic Resource Conventions Implemented: Consequences for the Sovereignty Issue.” Chap. 7 In The Antarctic Treaty System in World Politics, edited by Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl and Willy Østreng, 229–76: Macmillan/Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beeby, Christopher C. “The Antarctic Treaty System: Goals, Performance and Impact.” In The Antarctic Treatgy System in World Politics, edited by Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl and Willy Østreng, 4–21: Macmillan/Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Behrendt, John C. “Geophysical and Geological Research in Antarctica Related to the Assessment of Petroleum and Mineral Resources and Potential Environmental Hazards.” In Antarctic Challenge III, edited by Rüdiger Wolfrum, 165–78: Duncker and Humblot, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. “Recent Geophysical and Geological Research in Antarctica Related to the Assessment of Petroleum Resources and Potential Environmental Hazards to Their Development.” In Mineral Resources Potential of Antarctica, edited by John F Splettstoesser and Gisela A Dreschhoff. Antarctic Research Series 51, 163–74: American Geophysical Union, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergin, Anthony. “The Politics of Antarctic Minerals: The Greening of White Australia.” Australian Journal of Political Science 26, no. 2 (1991): 216–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowden, Tim. The Silence Calling: Australians in Antarctica 1947–1997. Allen & Unwin, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brady, Anne-Marie. China as a Polar Great Power. Cambridge University Press, 2017.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bramston, Troy. Paul Keating: The Big Picture Leader. Scribe, 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bray, Daniel. “The Geopolitics of Antarctic Governance: Sovereignty and Strategic Denial in Australia’s Antarctic Policy.” Australian Journal of International Affairs 70, no. 3 (2016/05/03 2016): 256–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, Bob. Memo for a Saner World. Penguin, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bush, W M, ed. Antarctica and International Law: A Collection of Inter-State and National Documents (Looseleaf Volumes): Oceana, 1994–2003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr, E H. What Is History? 2nd ed.: Penguin, 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrick, Robert. “Conservation of Nature in Antarctica.” Polar Record 10, no. 68 (1961): 532–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaturvedi, Sanjay. The Polar Regions. Wiley, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, Margaret L. “The Antarctic Environmental Protocol: NGOs in the Protection of Antarctica.” In Environmental NGOs in World Politics, edited by Matthias Finger and Thomas Prince, 160–85: Routledge, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coburn, Sean. “Eyeing 2048: Antarctic Treaty System’s Mining Ban.” Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 42, no. 2 (2017): 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • d’Alpuget, Blanche. Bob Hawke: The Complete Biography. Simon & Schuster, 2019.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, David. Paul Keating: The Biography. First printing, 1st ed.: HarperCollins, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodds, Klaus, and Mark Nuttall. The Scramble for the Poles. Wiley, 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dufek, George J. Through the Frozen Frontier. Brockhampton, 1960.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, H. “Recommendation 5: Establishment of Antarctica as a World Park under United Nations Auspices.” In Second World Conference on National Parks 1972, edited by H Elliott, 260, 443–44: IUCN, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, Lorraine M. International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic. Macmillan, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, Craig. The Boy from Baradine. Scribe, 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, Gareth. “The Background Politics of the Tasmanian Dam Case.” In The Tasmanian Dam Case 30 Years On, edited by Michael Coper, Heather Roberts and James Stellios, 11–15: Federation Press, 2017a.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. Incorrigible Optimist: A Political Memoir. Melbourne University Press, 2017b.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, Gareth, and Bruce Grant. Australia’s Foreign Relations in the World of the 1990’s. Melbourne University Press, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Francioni, Francesco. “The Madrid Protocol on the Protection of the Antarctic Environment.” Texas International Law Journal 28, no. 1 (1993): 47–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, Clive. Silent Invasion: China’s Influence in Australia. Hardie Grant, 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawke, Bob, and Derek Rielly. Wednesdays with Bob. Macmillan, 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heap, John A, ed. Handbook of the Antarctic Treaty System. 8th ed: US Department of State, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard, John. Lazarus Rising: A Personal and Political Autobiography. HarperCollins, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howkins, Adrian. The Polar Regions: An Environmental History. Polity, 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  • International Energy Agency. “World Energy Outlook 2010: Executive Summary.” International Energy Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, Andrew. “Politics, Diplomacy and the Creation of Antarctic Consensus.” Yearbook of Polar Law 9 (2018): 243–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, Andrew, and Peter Boyce. “Mining and ‘World Park Antarctica’.” Chap. 11 In Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System: 50 Years of Influence, edited by Marcus Haward and Tom Griffiths, 243–73: UNSW Press, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, Andrew, and Lorne Kriwoken. “The Protocol in Action, 1992–2010.” Chap. 13 In Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System: 50 Years of Influence, edited by Marcus Haward and Tom Griffiths, 300–19: UNSW Press, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsson, Marie. “Building the International Legal Framework for Antarctica.” In Science Diplomacy: Antarctica, and the Governance of International Spaces, edited by Paul Arthur Berkman, Michael A Lang, David W H Walton and Oran R Young, 1–15: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • “Jacques Cousteau’s Visit to Australia.” Australian Foreign Affairs and Trade: the Monthly Record 61, no. 2 (1990): 81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joyner, Christopher C. “1988 Antarctic Minerals Convention.” Marine Policy Reports 1, no. 1 (1989): 69–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. “CRAMRA: The Ugly Duckling of the Antarctic Treaty System?”. In The Antarctic Treaty System in World Politics, edited by Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl and Willy Østreng, 161–85: Macmillan/Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. “The Effectiveness of CRAMRA.” In Governing the Antarctic, edited by Olav Schram Stokke and Davor Vidas, 152–72: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. Governing the Frozen Commons. University of South Carolina Press, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennicutt, Mahlon C. “Looking to the Future: The Poles in 2058.” Antarctic Science 21, no. 2 (2009): 97–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirkham, Nicholas R, K M Gjerde, and A M W Wilson. “Deep-Sea Mining: Policy Options to Preserve the Last Frontier – Lessons from Antarctica’s Mineral Resource Convention.” Marine Policy 115 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kriwoken, Lorne, and Tom Maggs. “Environment.” Chap. 14 In Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System: 50 Years of Influence, edited by Marcus Haward and Tom Griffiths, 320–33: UNSW Press, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lange, David. My Life. Viking, 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Law, Phillip. Antarctica 1984. Sir John Morris Memorial Lecture 1964. Adult Education Board of Tasmania, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebedeva, Kira, and Sergei Petukhov. “Russia Decides to Return to the Antarctic with Serious Intentions and for Long.” Commersant 8 (22 January 2003).

    Google Scholar 

  • Liggett, Daniela. “Destination Icy Wilderness: Tourism in Antarctica.” In Exploring the Last Continent, edited by Daniela Liggett, Bryan C. Storey, Yvonne Anne Cook and Veronika Meduna, 379–98: Springer, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, Claire, Gillian Paxton, Joanna Parr, and Naomi Boughen. “Charting the Territory: Exploring Stakeholder Reactions to the Prospect of Seafloor Exploration and Mining in Australia.” Marine Policy 34 (2010): 1374–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merriam, Clark Lee. “The Cousteau Society/Foundation Cousteau: Retrospective of 1990 Activities.” Colorado Jourmal of International Environmental Law and Policy 2 (1991): 325–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, Mike. Beyond Today: A Look at a Sustainable Economy, Resource Management and Control and a History of Environmental Politics in New Zealand. Papanui LEC, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mosley, J G. Antarctica: Securing Its Heritage for the Whole World. Envirobook, 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. “Antarctica: The Case for a World Wilderness Park.” In Fighting for Wilderness, edited by J G Mosley and J Messer, 165–84: Fontana/ACF, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. Saving the Antarctic Wilderness. Envirobook, 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. “World Park for Antarctica.” Habitat Australia, no. 4 (October) (1989): 6–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, Robert Cushman. “Antarctic Conservation: Only by Careful Planning and Cooperation Can We Save This Primeval Region from the Ravages of Man.” Science 135, no. 3499 (1962): 194–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. “Antarctica: The Urgency of Protecting Life on and around the Great Southerly Continent.” Natural History 76, no. 6 (1967): 18–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, Geoffrey. Reform: A Memoir. Victoria University Press, 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paltridge, Garth, and Julia Jabour. “Antarctica and the Madrid Protocol.” Institute of Public Affairs Environmental Backgrounder, no. 23 (1996).

    Google Scholar 

  • Pannatier, Serge. “Acquisition of Consultative Status under the Antarctic Treaty.” Polar Record 30, no. 173 (1994): 123–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Press, A J. “The Antarctic Treaty System: Future Mining Faces Many Mathematical Challenges,” The Yearbook of Polar Law 7, (2015): 623–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • “Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.” https://documents.ats.aq/keydocs/vol_1/vol1_4_AT_Protocol_on_EP_e.pdf.

  • Raymond, Robert. “Frozen Assets.” Panorama: Ansett Airlines inflight magazine, no. 92 [April] (1990): 30–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redgwell, Catherine. “Antarctica: Wilderness Park or Eldorado Postponed?”. Environmental Politics 1, no. 1 (1992).

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, Graham. Whatever It Takes. Bantam, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, Mike G. “John Arnfield Heap, CMG.” Polar Record 42, no. 3 (2006): 263–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothwell, Donald, and Ruth Davis. Antarctic Environmental Protection: A Collection of Australian and International Instruments. Federation Press, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowland, J R. “The Treaty Regime and the Politics of the Consultative Parties.” In The Antarctic Legal Regime, edited by Christopher C Joyner and Sudhir K Chopra, 11–32: Martinus Nijhoff, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubinsky, Yuri. “Arctic Interests and the Policy of France.” Arctic and North 24 (2016): 145–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, Susan, and Troy Bramston, eds. The Hawke Government: A Critical Retrospective: Pluto Press, 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sands, Philippe, Jacqueline Peel, Aguilar Adriana Fabra, and Ruth Mackenzie. Principles of International Environmental Law. Third ed.: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saul, Ben, and Tim Stephens, eds. Antarctica in International Law: Hart, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scully, R Tucker. “The Development of the Antarctic Treaty System.” In Science Diplomacy: Antarctica, Science, and the Governance of International Spaces, edited by Paul Arthur Berkman, and others, 29–38: Smithsonian Institution, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shortis, Emma. ““Who Can Resist This Guy?” Jacques Cousteau, Celebrity Diplomacy, and the Environmental Protection of the Antarctic.” Australian Journal of Politics & History 61, no. 3 (2015): 366–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stokke, Olav Schram. “Domestic Politics and ATS Change: Introductory Assessment.” In Governing the Antarctic, edited by Olav Schram Stokke and Davor Vidas, 323–60: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suter, Keith D. World Law and the Last Wilderness. 2nd ed.: Friends of the Earth, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swan, Robert. Antarctica 2041: My Quest to Save the Earth’s Last Wilderness. Broadway, 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szabo, Michael. State of the Ice: An Overview of Human Impacts in Antarctica. Greenpeace International, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Templeton, Malcolm. Protecting Antarctica: The Development of the Treaty System. New Zealand Insitute of International Affairs, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. A Wise Adventure II: New Zealand and Antarctica after 1960. Victoria University Press, 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trachtenberg, Marc. The Craft of International History: A Guide to Method. Princeton University Press, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  • US Congress Office of Technology Assessment. Polar Prospects: A Minerals Treaty for Antarctica. US Government Printing Office, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vicuña, Francisco Orrego. “The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty: Questions of Effectiveness.” Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 7 (1994): 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vidas, Davor, ed. Implementing the Environmental Protection Regime for the Antarctic: Kluwer, 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolcott, Richard. “Foreword.” In Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System: 50 Years of Influence, edited by Marcus Haward and Tom Griffiths, xii–xv: UNSW Press, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia

    Andrew Jackson

Authors
  1. Andrew Jackson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Andrew Jackson .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Jackson, A. (2021). Conclusions. In: Who Saved Antarctica? . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78405-8_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78405-8_10

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-78404-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-78405-8

  • eBook Packages: HistoryHistory (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation