Abstract
The introductory chapter provides an insight into the rationale of the book and highlights the significance of Irish perceptions of and links with the Austro-Hungarian Empire and its successor states in the years 1904–1945. The primary aim of the book is highlighted here, stressing that the book examines how the transformation of political frameworks in Ireland and Central Europe shaped Irish perceptions of the nation, borders and identities. Before investigating the evolving nature of Irish interest in the region in the subsequent chapters, the book outlines the relevant historiographical context, pointing out the importance of scholarly work focusing on Irish links with Central Europe, the study of small nations, and research on national and transnational frameworks.
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Notes
- 1.
Maurice Earls, “The Coast of Bohemia,” Dublin Review of Books 61, November 2014, accessed 19 November 2014, http://www.drb.ie/essays/the-coast-of-bohemia?utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=The+Dublin+Review+of+Books+mid-November+2014&utm_content=The+Dublin+Review+of+Books+mid-November+2014+CID_032a5b9de63948a5455ff2da663f3cc8&utm_source=Email+marketing+software&utm_term=Coast+of+Bohemia
- 2.
Earls, The Coast of Bohemia.
- 3.
Thomas Kabdebo’s Ireland and Hungary: A Study in Parallels (2001) was a turning point in the comparative history of Irish and Hungarian nationalisms. It raised awareness of the possibility of further parallels between Ireland and Hungary and opened the path for comparative assessments such as Zsuzsanna Zarka’s doctoral dissertation on the “Images and perceptions of Hungary and Austria-Hungary in Ireland, 1815-1875” (2012) or Éamonn Ó Ciardha’s 2019 study, “‘The Resurrection of Hungary’: A Comparative Context for Ireland.” Róisín Healy also explored Irish perceptions of East-Central Europe (and Poland in particular) in her article “‘Inventing Eastern Europe’ in Ireland, 1848-1918” (2009), and monograph entitled Poland in the Irish Nationalist Imagination, 1772–1922 (2017). See Thomas Kabdebo, Ireland and Hungary: A Study in Parallels. With an Arthur Griffith Bibliography (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2001); Zsuzsanna Zarka, “Images and Perceptions of Hungary and Austria-Hungary in Ireland, 1815-1875” (PhD diss., National University of Ireland, Maynooth, 2012); Róisín Healy, “Inventing Eastern Europe in Ireland, 1848-1918,” in The Yearbook of the “Gheorghe Sincai” Institute for Social Sciences and the Humanities of the Romanian Academy, ed, Cornel Sigmirean (Târgu-Mureş: Institutul de Cercetări Socio-Umane Gheorghe Şincai al Academiei Române, 2009), 103-117; Róisín Healy, Poland in the Irish Nationalist Imagination, 1772–1922 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017; Éamonn Ó Ciardha, “‘The Resurrection of Hungary’: A Comparative Context for Ireland,” in Blick ins Ungewisse: Visionen und Utopien im Donau-Karpaten [Look into the Unknown: Visions and Utopias in the Danube-Carpathian Region], eds. Angela Illić, Florian Kührer-Wielach, Irena Samide, and Tanja Žigon (Regensburg: Verlag Friedrich Pustet, 2019), 95–117.
- 4.
Although Dermot Keogh’s Ireland and Europe (1988) provided precise accounts of Irish foreign policy with regard to European politics and also generated a renewed interest in Ireland’s connections with the wider world, small nations such as Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia did not receive serious consideration. From the 1990s, scholars have started to pay more attention to investigating Irish history in its broader European context. Hugh F. Kearney, among others, represents the line of historiography that emphasised that “Irish nationalism can only be properly understood within an international perspective.” Furthermore, Michael Kennedy, in his Ireland and the League of Nations (1996), also argued for the re-evaluation of the traditional practice of analysing Irish foreign policy only from the viewpoint of Anglo-Irish relations. Kennedy’s research corresponds to the works of Dermot Keogh or Paul Sharp (1990), who also wished to step aside from the historiographical tradition that had focused on viewing Irish history in the light of the British dimension and the Commonwealth (notably, Patrick Keatinge argued that Anglo-Irish issues took priority before 1949). And even though the writings of Keogh and Kennedy were crucial in defining Ireland’s attitude towards political changes in Europe, they did not offer detailed conclusions on the actual relationship between Irish diplomats and their Central European counterparts. See Dermot Keogh, Ireland and Europe 1919-48 (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1988), 2; Hugh F. Kearney, Ireland: Contested Ideas of Nationalism and History (New York: NYU Press, 2007), 101 and 117; Michael Kennedy, Ireland and the League of Nations 1919-1946. International Relations, Diplomacy and Politics (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1996), 13; Paul Sharp, Irish Foreign Policy and the European Community (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1990); Patrick Keatinge, The Formulation of Irish Foreign Policy (Dublin: Institute of Public Administration, 1973); and Patrick Keatinge, A Place among the Nations: Issues of Irish Foreign Policy (Dublin: Institute of Public Administration, 1978).
- 5.
In addition to the history of Irish involvement in the Thirty Years’ War, accounts regarding Irish Franciscans in seventeenth-century Prague also attracted the attention of Irish authors in the first half of the twentieth century. See Richard John Kelly, “Ireland and Bohemia,” Irish Ecclesiastical Record 21, no. 4 (April 1907): 355–360; “Gossip: on R. J. Kelly being invited to Prague for the unveiling of a statue of Palacky and on some Irish connections with the city,” Irish Book Lover 3 (July 1912): 209-210; Richard John Kelly, “The Irish Franciscans in Prague (1629-1786): their literary labours,” Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 12, no. 6 (1922): 169–174; Patrick Nolan, “Irishmen in the Thirty Years’ War,” Irish Ecclesiastical Record 23 (October 1923): 362–369; Mary M. Macken, “Wallenstein and Butler: 1634-1934,” Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review 23, no. 92 (December 1934): 593-610; Timothy Corcoran, “A Man of Action: Action for Irish Catholic Education Three Centuries Ago. I: Walter Butler of Roscrea,” Irish Monthly 63, no. 741 (March 1935): 181–190l; Timothy Corcoran, “A Man of Action. Action for Irish Catholic Education Three Centuries Ago. II: Walter Butler of Friedberg,” Irish Monthly 63, no. 742 (April 1935): 243–253; and Brendan Jennings, “The Irish Franciscans in Prague” Studies 28, no. 110 (June 1939): 210–222. For recent secondary sources on the historical connection between Bohemia and Ireland, see the contributions of Gerald Power, Jiři Brňovják, Hedvika Kuchařová and Jan Pařez in Gerald Power and Ondřej Pilný, eds., Ireland and the Czech Lands: Contacts and Comparisons in History and Culture (Bern: Peter Lang, 2014).
- 6.
Brian Maye, Arthur Griffith (Dublin: Griffith College Publications, 1997): 97, and David G. Haglund and Umut Korkut, “Going against the Flow: Sinn Fein’s Unusual Hungarian ‘Roots,’” International History Review 37, no. 1 (2015): 49 and 55.
- 7.
Murray, “Introduction,” in Arthur Griffith, The Resurrection of Hungary (Dublin: UCD Press, 2003): x; Donal McCartney, “The Political Use of History in the Work of Arthur Griffith,” Journal of Contemporary History 7, no. 1 (January 1973): 8; and Brian Maye, Arthur Griffith (Dublin: Griffith College Publications, 1997): 99; and Michael Laffan, “Griffith, Arthur Joseph,” Dictionary of Irish Biography, eds. James McGuire, James Quinn (Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2009) [henceforth: DIB], accessed 6 September 2014, http://dib.cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a3644.
- 8.
When examining the applicability of Griffith’s “Hungarian tutorial” in Ireland, David G. Haglund and Umut Korkut deemed the application of the parallel undoubtedly limited and Griffith to be largely mistaken to assume that Hungary could serve as a model for Ireland. Similarly, Michael Laffan also expressed doubt as to the validity of Griffith’s analogies and labelled them “false,” especially his “hero-worship of the Hungarians.” See Murray, “Introduction,” x; McCartney, “The Political Use of History,” 8; Maye, Arthur Griffith, 99; Laffan, “Griffith, Arthur Joseph,” DIB; Haglund and Korkut, “Going against the Flow,” 41, 43, 50 and 56; and Michael Laffan, The Resurrection of Ireland: The Sinn Féin Party, 1916-1923 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005): 223.
- 9.
Laffan, The Resurrection of Ireland, 223.
- 10.
Maye, Arthur Griffith, 4.
- 11.
Sinn Féin, 13 September 1913, quoted by Michael Laffan. See Laffan, “Griffith, Arthur Joseph,” DIB.
- 12.
Irish references to Catholic Poland, though plentiful, point to the need for separate studies—for which Róisín Healy’s research on Irish-Polish connections in the eighteenth and long nineteenth centuries may provide the historical framework. It is worthy of note that the Russian Empire, the Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia divided up the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in a series of three partitions in the late eighteenth century (1772, 1793 and 1795). As a result, the Polish state ceased to exist until Polish independence was fully restored at the end of the Great War in 1918. Independent Poland was more caught up in the power struggle between Russia and Germany rather than linked to its former relationship with Habsburg Central Europe. For further details on nineteenth-century links, see Róisín Healy, “Irish-Polish Solidarity: Irish Responses to the January Uprising of 1863-64 in Congress Poland,” in Transnational Perspectives on Modern Irish History, ed. Niall Whelehan (London: Routledge, 2014), 149-164.
- 13.
Gábor Bátonyi, Britain and Central Europe 1918-1933 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999).
- 14.
Declan Kiberd, Inventing Ireland: The Literature of the Modern Nation (London: Vintage, 1996), 338.
- 15.
Robin Okey, “Central Europe / Eastern Europe: Behind the Definitions,” Past & Present, no. 137 (November 1992): 104.
- 16.
Larry Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); and Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).
- 17.
Bátonyi, Britain and Central Europe, 3–5.
- 18.
Mária Ormos, Közép-Európa: Volt? Van? Lesz? [Central Europe. Was? Is? Will be?] (Budapest: Napvilág Kiadó, 2007), 17–21.
- 19.
In general terms, one of the simplest and most straightforward definitions for small nations was associated with the Czech thinker and writer, Milan Kundera. In his The Tragedy of Central Europe, he made it clear that “the small nation is one whose very existence may be put in question at any moment; a small nation can disappear and it knows it.” Most importantly, the vulnerability and weakness of post-1918 small states caught Kundera’s attention; a central quality in the explanations provided by researchers in the second half of the twentieth century. Similarly, István Bibó’s The Misery of the Small Eastern European States (1946) explored the challenges small states faced due to the emergence of “language-related nationalisms” in the successor states of Habsburg Central Europe. Since the right to self-determination was not applied consistently after the Great War with regard to the new borders, according to Bibó, this led to a seemingly irreconcilable conflict between the small states in the region. He was convinced that adhering to democratic principles and moving “beyond militant nationalism” were the keys to progress. See Milan Kundera, “The Tragedy of Central Europe,” New York Review of Books 31, no. 7 (1984), accessed 17 March 2013, http://euroculture.upol.cz/dokumenty/sylaby/Kundera_Tragedy_18.pdf; and István Bibó, A kelet-európai kisállamok nyomorúsága [The Misery of the Small Eastern European States] (Budapest: Argumentum Kiadó, 2011), 52; Stefánia Bódi, “The Interpretation of the Central and Eastern European Conflict based on the Theory of István Bibó,” AARMS 5, no. 2 (2006): 173; Tibor Zs. Lukács, “István Bibó on the Conditions of Danubian Reconciliation,” in Geopolitics in the Danube Region: Hungarian Reconciliation Efforts, 1848-1998, eds. Ignác Romsics and Béla K. Király (Budapest: Central European University Press, 1999), 269 and 271.
- 20.
When assessing developments in the post-1945 period, Ben Tonra, John Doyle and Michael Kennedy pointed out that the size of states was “not as clear cut in foreign policy as it might seem at first,” adding that, however, “the issues of size, wealth and military power are of course related.” Ben Tonra and Eilís Ward (2002) also claimed that investigating “the Irish experience adds to our understanding of small state foreign policy development.” Most importantly, Tonra stressed how crucial it was to avoid examining the Irish experience in isolation. See John Doyle, Michael Kennedy and Ben Tonra, “Chapter 1—Theories, Concepts and Sources” in Irish Foreign Policy, eds. Ben Tonra, Michael Kennedy, John Doyle, and Noel Dorr (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 2012), 8–9; Ben Tonra and Eilís Ward, “Introduction,” in Ireland in International Affairs: Interests, Institutions and Identities: Essays in Honour of Professor N.P. Keatinge, FTCD, MRIA, eds. Ben Tonra and Eilis Ward (Dublin: Institute of Public Administration, 2002), 5; Ben Tonra, Global Citizen and European Republic: Irish Foreign Policy in Transition (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006); Kevin O’Sullivan, Ireland, Africa and the end of Empire: Small state identity in the Cold War, 1955-1975 (Manchester University Press, 2012).
- 21.
Paul Sharp, Irish Foreign Policy and the European Community (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1990), 22.
- 22.
Michael Handel, Weak States in the International System (London: Frank Cass, 1981), 257; Håkan Wiberg, “The Security of Small Nations: Challenges and Defenses,” Journal of Peace Research 24, no. 4 (1987): 339–340.
- 23.
For historical surveys of Irish nationalism, see David George Boyce, Nationalism in Ireland (New York: Routledge, 1995); and Tom Garvin, Irish Parties and Irish Politics from the 18th Century to Modern Times (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 2005).
- 24.
John Hutchinson, “Cultural Nationalism, Elite Mobility and Nation-Building: Communitarian Politics in Modern Ireland,” British Journal of Sociology 38, no. 4 (December 1987): 483.
- 25.
Hutchinson, “Cultural Nationalism,” 482 and 486.
- 26.
Likewise, Stephen Howe claimed that all strands of Irish nationalism appeared to have “reacted against, English and British ideas, traditions, beliefs, and discourses.” See Stephen Howe, Ireland and Empire: Colonial Legacies in Irish History and Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 40; Senia Pašeta, Before the Revolution: Nationalism, Social Change and Ireland’s Catholic Elite, 1879-1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 153; Hutchinson, “Cultural Nationalism,” 483; and Timothy G. McMahon, Grand Opportunity: The Gaelic Revival and Irish Society, 1893-1910 (New York: Syracuse University Press, 2008), 215.
- 27.
Alvin Jackson claimed that “the partition of Ireland had a wider imperial resonance.” He stressed that the idea for partition stemmed from the fear of the ruling minority of anti-colonial national movements. More specifically, Joe Cleary (2002) compared the British support for Ulster Unionists to that for Zionism and viewed partition within the context of colonialism, arguing that both depended on imperial support. See Alvin Jackson, “Ireland, the Union, and the Empire, 1800-1960,” in Ireland and the British Empire, ed. Kevin Kenny (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 145–146; and Joe Cleary, Literature, Partition and the Nation-State: Culture and Conflict in Ireland, Israel and Palestine (Oxford: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 7–8, and 37.
- 28.
Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991), 4.
- 29.
Kearney, Ireland: Contested Ideas, 52–54.
- 30.
Kearney, Ireland: Contested Ideas, 52–54.
- 31.
John W. Mason, The Dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, 1867-1918 (London: Longman, 1997), 9-10.
- 32.
Joep Leerssen, National Thought in Europe: A Cultural History (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2008), 250.
- 33.
Howe, Ireland and Empire, 239–240.
- 34.
In his 2011 study, Enda Delaney emphasised the potential of transnational history in terms of examining the exchanging ideas in Irish historical writing. See Enda Delaney, “Our Island Story? Towards a Transnational History of late Modern Ireland,” Irish Historical Studies 37, no. 148 (2011): 618.
- 35.
Transnational Perspectives on Modern Irish History (2015), edited by Niall Whelehan, has been of key importance in studying the history of transnational Ireland. The volume assessed what transnationalism could bring to modern Irish history and explored the practical advantages of transnational Irish history. Similarly, the 2020 special issue of the Irish Historical Studies, edited by Enda Delaney and Fearghal McGarry, was devoted to framing the history of the Irish Revolution (1912–1923) within a global revolutionary movement instead of confining it to the island of Ireland. See Niall Whelehan, “Introduction,” in Transnational Perspectives on Modern Irish History, ed. Niall Whelehan (New York: Routledge, 2015): 1; and Enda Delaney and Fearghal McGarry, “Introduction: a global history of the Irish Revolution,” Irish Historical Studies 44, no. 165 (2020): 10.
- 36.
Patricia Clavin claimed that the study of “smaller nations” was compatible with a transnational approach; she emphasised that naturally, smaller nations have always been considered to be more outward-looking because they had to be. The aim of focusing on the experience of small nations, Clavin argued, was to identify “the history of some of Europe’s borderlands or regions as areas of special transnational interest.” As far as Ireland was concerned, Clavin emphasised that Ireland aimed to forge new, transnational connections with the wider world in addition to its existing contacts with the British Empire, pointing to the emergence of transnational organisations such as the League of Nations. See Patricia Clavin, “Defining Transnationalism,” Contemporary European History 14, no. 4 (November 2005): 422; and Patricia Clavin, “Time, Manner, Place: Writing Modern European History in Global, Transnational and International Contexts,” European History Quarterly 40, no. 4 (October 2010): 632–634.
- 37.
Heinz-Gerhard Haupt, and Jürgen Kocka, eds., Comparative and Transnational History: Central European Approaches and New Perspectives (New York: Berghahn Books, 2002).
- 38.
Jeremy King, Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005); Jeremy King, “Austria vs. Hungary: Nationhood, Statehood, and Violence since 1867,” in Nationalitätenkonflikte im 20. Jahrhundert: Ursachen von inter ethnischer Gewalt im europäischen Vergleich [Nationality Conflicts in the 20th Century: Causes of Inter-Ethnic Violence in European Comparison], eds. Philipp Ther and Holm Sundhaussen (Berlin: Harrassowitz, 2001), 163-182; Jeremy King, “The Nationalization of East Central Europe: Ethnicism, Ethnicity, and Beyond,” in Staging the Past: The Politics of Commemoration in Habsburg Central Europe, 1848 to the Present, eds. Maria Bucur and Nancy M. Wingfield (West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2001), 112–152; and Tara Zahra, “Imagined Noncommunities: National Indifference as a Category of Analysis,” Slavic Review 69, no. 1 (Spring, 2010): 102 and 114; Tara Zahra, Kidnapped Souls: National Indifference and the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900-1948 (Ithaka: Cornell University Press, 2011).
- 39.
Zahra, “Imagined Noncommunities,” 143.
- 40.
King, Budweisers into Czechs and Germans, 8.
- 41.
For details on the significance of the League as a transnational body, see Patricia Clavin, The Reinvention of the League of Nations, 1920-1946 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).
- 42.
Due to the financial constraints on the Department of External Affairs (and after 1945 due the emergence of the Cold War), Ireland and the successor states did not establish full bilateral diplomatic relations until the second half of the twentieth century (with Austria in 1951; with Czechoslovakia in 1975; and with Hungary in 1976). As far as historiography is concerned, the works of Daniel Samek (2009) and Paul Leifer and Eda Sagarra (2000) are of great importance. They traced diplomatic, cultural, academic and economic links between Ireland, Czechoslovakia and Austria, respectively. And although Samek examined the history of the Czechoslovak Consulate in Dublin, he focused mainly on literary, educational and linguistic issues and did not investigate Irish images of the Slovaks either. Similarly, Leifer and Sagarra’s Austro-Irish Links Throughout the Centuries covers an impressively wide range of themes and time periods but borders and identities were not of primary concern in the volume. The present book, however, aims to demonstrate how Irish images of borders and identities in small nations may be discussed in either the context of the Dual Monarchy, or as separate independent small states in post-war Europe, emphasising the continuity of Irish interest in the region. See Daniel Samek, Czech-Irish Cultural Relations, 1900-1950 (Prague: Centre for Irish Studies, Charles University, 2009); Paul Leifer and Eda Sagarra, eds., Austro-Irish Links through the Centuries. Favorita Papers Special Edition (Vienna: Diplomatic Academy of Vienna, 2000).
- 43.
For detailed analyses on the links between the empire and the traditional nationalist Freeman’s Journal and the main (pro-Catholic) voice of the Irish Parliamentary Party, the Irish Independent , compare Patrick Maume, “The Irish Independent and Empire, 1891-1919,” and Felix M. Larkin, “The Dog in the Night-Time: The Freeman’s Journal, the Irish Parliamentary Party and the Empire, 1875-1919,” in Newspapers and Empire in Ireland and Britain: Reporting the British Empire, c. 1857-1921, ed. Simon J. Potter (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004), 124-143 and 109–123, respectively.
- 44.
The Irish Press (1931–1995) was founded by Eamon de Valera to provide electoral support for Fianna Fáil before the 1932 general elections. For a detailed study on the Irish Press, see Mark O’Brien, De Valera, Fianna Fáil and the Irish Press: The Truth in the News? (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2001).
- 45.
Caleb Richardson, “Transforming Anglo-Ireland: R. M. Smyllie and the Irish Times,” New Hibernia Review / Iris Éireannach Nua 11, no. 4 (Winter 2007), 17.
- 46.
Mark O’Brien, The Irish Times: A History (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2008), 81.
- 47.
Bryan Fanning, The Quest for Modern Ireland: The Battle of Ideas 1912-1986 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2008), 1.
- 48.
Under the editorship of Timothy Corcoran (1912–1914) and then Patrick Connolly (1914–1950), Studies sought to educate readers on issues of the wider world in addition to dedicating itself to “nation-building projects in post-independence Ireland.” Besides the significance of its contributors, the “relatively small yet highly influential” readership of Studies is also worthy of note since they constituted an important segment of Irish society. See Fanning, The Quest for Modern Ireland, 67–68 and Brian Murphy, The Catholic Bulletin and Republican Ireland with Special Reference to J. J. O’Kelly (‘Sceilg’) (Belfast: Athol Books, 2005), 217; Brian P. Kennedy and James Meenan, “Seventy-Five Years of Studies [with Comments],” Studies 75, no. 300 (Winter, 1986), 370.
- 49.
Pašeta, Before the Revolution, 1; Roy F. Foster, Vivid Faces: The Revolutionary Generation in Ireland, 1890-1923 (London: Allen Lane, 2014), 4–5.
- 50.
Pašeta, Before the Revolution, 1; and Ciaran O’Neill, Catholics of Consequence: Transnational Education, Social Mobility, and the Irish Catholic Elite 1850-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
- 51.
Foster, Vivid Faces, 9.
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Zách, L. (2021). Introduction. In: Imagining Ireland Abroad, 1904–1945. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77813-2_1
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