Abstract
Sexual violence is a human rights violation, and breaches humanitarian law in the context of armed conflict. Violence against refugee women and girls cuts across every stratum of society, especially during armed conflicts. Brutalisation of refugee women and girls is a persistent trend during armed conflict. In such a situation, women are repeatedly raped, forced into marriage and sold into slavery. Notably, while escaping from conflict zone, they risk being brutalised by human traffickers or border security forces. Importantly staying in refugee camp within the country or seeking protection elsewhere brings severe threat to women’s right to education, safety, freedom, livelihood and political participation. These, in addition to tightened immigration policy, and border controls resulting in overcrowded reception centres, delayed processing for asylum applications and restricted family reunifications, further increase their vulnerability. We argue that given level of vulnerability, there is need for refugee women and girls to be adequately protected against violence as resolved by the international community. In fact, the United Nations High Commission on Refugees’ Executive Committee, aiming at increasing awareness of the particular circumstances of refugee women, adopted series of conclusions targeted at affording more meaningful protection to women fleeing from prosecution in their home countries. These conclusions address the need to protect women in refugee camps and equal participation in relief programmes. Despite all the declarations, conventions and resolutions, the scourge persists. Thus, we consider issues faced by refugee women in their host countries and examine how international human rights norms can be protective and ensure the rights of refugee women. We recommend that states should consolidate their actions and take essential steps needed to guarantee protection of refugee women against violence, on a non-discriminatory basis, ranging from civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights which are their entitlements under international law.
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Notes
- 1.
M. Obradovic, ‘Protecting female refugees against sexual and gender-based violence in camps’ (2015), ourworld.unu.edu.
- 2.
Volunteers Team, ‘Violence against refugee women and girls’ (2018), www.thecircle.ngo; See also the UN Report at The International Migration Report 2017 (Highlights) Multimedia Library—United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, https://www.un.org/development/desa/publications/international-migration-report-2017.html.
- 3.
Ibid.
- 4.
UN Women (Europe and Central Asia), Women Refugees and Migrants (2020), www.eca.unwomen.org.
- 5.
Comment supplied.
- 6.
Our World, ‘Scourge of sexual violence in armed conflict: Far from being rooted Out’ (2015), www.ourworld.unu.edu.
- 7.
T. Farrell and O. Schmitt, The Causes, Character and Conduct of Armed Conflict, and the Effects on Civilian Populations, 1990–2010 (2012).
- 8.
UNHCR, Handbook for the Protection of Women and Girls (2006): 7, https://cms.emergency.unhcr.org/documents/11982/57181/UNHCR+Handbook+for+the+Protection+of+Women+and+Girls.pdf/ed5b4707-337f-4275-86e7-3af5f81186ea.
- 9.
International Crisis Group, ‘Fighting Boko Haram in Chad: Beyond Military Measures’, March 8, 2017, https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/24-fighting-Boko-Haram-in-Chad-Beyond-Military-Measures-|-Crisis-Group.
- 10.
Ibid.
- 11.
UNHCR Division of Operation Services. ‘2006 Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum Seekers, Returnees and Stateless Persons’, July 16, 2007.
- 12.
UNCHR. Global trends Report (2019), https://www.unhcr.org/be/wp-content/uploads/sites/46/2020/07/Global-Trends-Report-2019.pdf.
- 13.
Ibid.
- 14.
Ibid.
- 15.
BBC, ‘Nigeria to Investigate Alleged Abuses at Refugee Camps’ (2015), www.bbc.co.uk.
- 16.
M. Obradovic, ‘Protecting Female Refugees Against Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in Camps’ (2015), ourworld.unu.edu.
- 17.
Jane Freedman, ‘Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Against Refugee Women: A Hidden Aspect of the Refugee Crisis’ 24(47), Reproductive Health Matters (2016): 18–26.
- 18.
Ibid.
- 19.
Volunteers Team (2018), supra note 2.
- 20.
Ibid., 26.
- 21.
UNHCR, ‘The Refugee Concept Under International Law -Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration’ (2018); B Nowrojee, ‘Sexual Violence, Gender Roles and Displacement’, in Refugee Rights—Ethics, Advocacy and Africa, edited by D. Hollenbach (2008).
- 22.
Ibid.
- 23.
Ibid.
- 24.
Helena Nilsson, ‘Sudanese and South Sudanese Refugee Women’s Sense of Security in Kakuma Refugee Camp’ (2013): 29.
- 25.
UN Women, ‘Strengthening Women’s Access to Justice’, https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/strengthening-womens-access-to-justice.
- 26.
Ibid.
- 27.
Declaration of the High-level meeting of the General Assembly on the Rule of Law at the National and International Levels, November 30, 2012, A/RES/67/1, paragraphs 14–16.
- 28.
Basic principles and guidelines on the right to a remedy and reparations for victims of gross violations of international human rights law and serious violence of international humanitarian law, VII, paragraph 12, A/RES/60/147, March 21, 2006.
- 29.
Rose Donnelly and Viknes Muthiah, ‘Women and Girls in Refugee Camps States’ Obligations Under International Law’ (2019): 39.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
Ibid., 39.
- 32.
Council of Europe, ‘Migrant and Refugee Women and Girls’, www.coe.int.
- 33.
Council of Europe, ‘Guaranteeing Equals of Women to Justice’, www.coe.int.
- 34.
Ibid.
- 35.
S. Bock, ‘Community, Legal & Industry Education, Professional Development Relativity’ (November 8, 2018), https://www.relativity.com/blog/4-barriers-blocking-access-to-justice-and-how-to-break-them/.
- 36.
Judicial Council on Cultural Diversity, ‘Barriers to Access to Justice for Migrant and Refugee Women’, https://jccd.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Migrant-Refugee-Women-FACTSHEET.pdf.
- 37.
Ibid., 31.
- 38.
Kubiat Umana, ‘Effects of Boko Haram activities in Nigeria’ (2019), http://researchcyber.com/effects-of-boko-haram-activities-in-Nigeria/.
- 39.
UNHCR, ‘Access to Justice Project Report’, June-December 2016, file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/1483607913.pdf.
- 40.
The most recent of these instruments have been provided.
- 41.
Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention, as complemented by the 1967 Protocol.
- 42.
1951 Refugee Convention and UN Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. Other instruments are listed below:
(1967) http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10.html; UN General Assembly International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), known as ‘ICCPR’, https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20999/volume-999-I-14668-English.pdf; UN General Assembly International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), known as ‘ICESCR’, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx; UN General Assembly International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1969), http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CERD.aspx; UN Convention on the elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979) known as ‘CEDAW’, http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm; UNHCR Policy on Refugee Women (1990), http://www.refworld.org/docid/3bf1338f4.html; UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, known as ‘CRC’ (1990), http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CRC.aspx; UNHCR Guidelines on the Protection of Refugee Women (1991), http://www.unhcr.org/3d4f915e4.html; UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, known ‘DEVAW’(1993), http://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f25d2c.html; UN Beijing Declaration and Platform of Action, Fourth World Conference on Women (1995), http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/pdf/BDPfA%20E.pdf; UNHCR Policy on Harmful Traditional Practices (1997), http://www.refworld.org/docid/3efc79f34.html; UN Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1999), http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/774/73/PDF/N9977473.pdf?OpenElement; UNHCR Policy on Older Refugees (2000), http://www.unhcr.org/4e857c279.html; UN Security Council Resolution No. 1325/2000 on Women and Peace and Security, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-%2f%2fEP%2f%2fNONSGML%2bCOMPARL%2bPE-571.702%2b01%2bDOC%2bPDF%2bV0%2f%2fEN; UNProtocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, known as ‘Palermo Trafficking Protocol’ (2000), http://www.refworld.org/docid/4720706c0.html; UNHCR Five Commitments to Refugee Women (2001), http://www.refworld.org/docid/479f3b2a2.html; UNHCR Guidelines on International Protection: Gender-related Persecution within the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees (2002), http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3d36f1c64.pdf; UNHCR Sexual and Gender-based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons. Guidelines for Prevention and Response (2003), http; UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) Resolution No. 31/2005 on Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective into All Policies and Programmes in the United Nations System, http://www.refworld.org/docid/463b3d652.html; United Nations Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons of 1954, https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Source/PDF_Conv_197_Trafficking_Erev.pdf; Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (2005), https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Source/PDF_Conv_197_Trafficking_Erev.pdf; UNHCR Guidelines on International Protection: the Application of article 1A(2) of the1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees to Victims of Trafficking and Persons at Risk of Being Trafficked (2006), http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/443679fa4.pdf; UN General Assembly In-depth Study on All Forms of Violence against Women (2006), http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N06/419/74/PDF/N0641974.pdf?OpenElement; UN Security Council Resolution No. 1820/2008 on Acts of Sexual Violence against Civilians in Armed Conflicts (2008), http://www.refworld.org/docid/485bbca72.html; UNHCR Handbook for the Protection of Women and Girls (2008), http://www.refworld.org/docid/47cfc2962.html; Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (so called Istanbul Convention, 2011), https://www.coe.int/t/DGHL/STANDARDSETTING/EQUALITY/03themes/violence-againstwomen/Conv_VAW_en.pdf; UN General Recommendation No. 32/2014 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women on the Gender-related Dimensions of Refugee Status, Asylum, Nationality and Statelessness of Women, http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N14/627/90/PDF/N1462790.pdf?OpenElement; UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) No. 5: Achieve Gender Equality and Empower All Women and Girls (2015). SDGs have been adopted through a UN General Assembly resolution in 2015, http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E.
- 43.
African Union is formerly the Organisation of African Unity.
- 44.
Euro stat Statistics Explained, ‘Number of asylum applicants (non-EU-27 citizens), EU-27, 2008–2019’ (2020), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Asylum_statistics.
- 45.
Silvia Sansonetti. Female Refugees and Asylum Seekers: The Issue of Integration (Policy Department for Citizen’s Rights and Constitutional Affairs) (2016): 17, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/supporting-analyses.
- 46.
Al-Monitor, ‘Syrian Refugee Girls Exploited by Prostitution Networks’ (March 13, 2014) Syrian refugee girls exploited by prostitution networks (al-monitor.com).
- 47.
Ibid.
- 48.
Article 23.
- 49.
Supra note 36.
- 50.
Ibid.
- 51.
See Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011; The Directive mandates member states to consider the specific situation and needs of vulnerable groups including pregnant women, victims of trafficking, those who have been tortured, victims of rape, GBV especially at the time of implementation. They must also provide relevant help to pregnant refugees and gender-based violence (GBV) victims; see also the Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of April 5, 2011.
- 52.
Advisory Opinion on the Extraterritorial Application of Non-Refoulement Obligations under the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. https://www.unhcr.org/4d9486929.pdf.
- 53.
Shirley Llain Arenilla, 2015, ‘Violations to the Principle of Non-Refoulement Under the Asylum Policy of the United States’, 15(1) Mexican Year Book of International Law (2015): 283–322.
- 54.
Article 33 and 33(1) of the 1951 Convention. This Provision is Also Binding on States Party to the 1967 Protocol.
- 55.
It must be mentioned that this principle is not without an exception. Article 33(2) of the 1951 Convention states where a refugee has been convicted by a judgement on a serious crime, he can be returned to his country or country of origin.
- 56.
Supra note 42. We used the word origin not in the sense of place of birth, but in respect to any country where the refugee women or girls are coming from.
- 57.
UNHCR, UNHCR GLOBAL APPEAL 2019 UPDATE, 25, https://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/ga2019/pdf/Chapter_Africa.pdf.
- 58.
Sandra Mateus and Filipa Pinho, ‘Welcome!’ Collection of Good Practices Already Existing for Refugees’ Welcoming and First Inclusion (Asylum, Migration and Integration Fund, June 2018), http://www.pandpasproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Good_Practices.pdf.
- 59.
Cambridge Dictionary.org, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/best-practice.
- 60.
UNHCR, Refugee Resettlement: An International Handbook to Guide Reception and Integration, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), October 1, 2002, https://www.unhcr.org/uk/protection/resettlement/4a2cfe336/refugee-resettlement-international-handbook-guide-reception-integration.html.
- 61.
Elspeth Guild and Violeta Moreno-La, Current Challenges Regarding the International Refugee Law, with Focus on EU Policies and EU Co-operation with UNHCR, Directorate General for External Policies of the Union (DG EXPO), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/committees/en/studies.html.
- 62.
European Parliament, ‘Asylum and Migration in the EU: Facts and Figures’.
- 63.
Supra note 61.
- 64.
UNHCR EXCOM Conclusions No. 8 (1977), paragraph (e); and No. 30 (1983), paragraph (e)(i). The content of these have been reproduced in the Handbook, paragraphs 192 ff. See also UNHCR, Fair and Efficient Asylum Procedures: A NonExhaustive Overview of Applicable International Standards (Geneva: UNHCR, 2 September 2005), www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/432ae9204.pdf as cited by Elspeth Guild and Violeta Moreno-La. See n. 47.
- 65.
Supra note 61.
- 66.
http://refugeelegalaidinformation.org/fgmc-case-law-and-other-legal-documents#main-content; Also in Omeredo v. Austria [2011] a Nigerian woman who had claimed asylum in Austria on grounds of fear of FGM/C, which was refused, invoked Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Her complaint was rejected, http://refugeelegalaidinformation.org/fgmc-case-law-and-other-legal-documents#main-content.
- 67.
Ibid.
- 68.
Council Directive 2005/85/EC of 1 December 2005 on minimum standards on procedures in Member States for granting and withdrawing refugee status [2005] OJ L 326/13.
- 69.
Ibid.
- 70.
Rosa Da Costa, Rights of Refugees in the Context of Integration: Legal Standards and Recommendations, https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/44bb9b684.pdf.
- 71.
Sandra Mateus and Filipa Pinho, ‘Welcome!’ Collection of Good Practices Already Existing for Refugees’ Welcoming and First Inclusion (Asylum, Migration and Integration Fund, June 2018). http://www.pandpasproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Good_Practices.pdf.
- 72.
Ibid., 10.
- 73.
UN General Assembly, ‘Assistance to Refugees, Returnees and Displaced Persons in Africa—Report of the Secretary-General (A/72/354) [EN/AR] < A/72/354 - E - A/72/354 -Desktop (undocs.org).
- 74.
Gbenga Adeniji, ‘Nigeria Tried for Us But We Need Help to Return Home -Oru Ex-refugee from Sierra Leone, Liberia’, The Punch, January 28, 2018.
- 75.
Sergio Carciotto and Filippo Ferraro, ‘Building Blocks and Challenges for the Implementation of the Global Compact on Refugees in Africa’, 8(1) Journal on Migration and Human Security (2020): 83–95.
- 76.
Ibid.
- 77.
Ibid.
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Kaniye-Ebeku, C.O., Odumosu, T. (2022). Protection of Refugee Women and Girls from Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Under International Law. In: Budoo-Scholtz, A., Lubaale, E.C. (eds) Violence Against Women and Criminal Justice in Africa: Volume II. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75953-7_13
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