Abstract
In this chapter, the nationalist movements among the Crimean Tatars, who have immigrated Ottoman Dobruca region throughout the nineteenth century, will be examined. The long-distance nationalism in Dobruca between 1900 and 1945 forms the first mini-case. The emergence of nationalism is prompted by intelligentsia’s re-interpretation of pan-Turkist ideology to fit the structural problems the Crimean Tatar minority faced during the modernization and nationalization of Romania. This movement is qualified as exile nationalism because it became quite resonant among people and planned a collective return, which failed to realize only due to the outbreak of the Second World War. The territorially rooted nationalism developed under communist policies form the second mini-case, and a smaller number of communist-educated intelligentsia could preserve Crimean Tatar cultural identity without referring to the homeland. The post-communist period is the last mini-case of diaspora mobilization and demonstrates a rejuvenation of identity despite the Crimean Tatars no more aim to return to the homeland. This forms the diaspora nationalism .
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Notes
- 1.
“Tatar” in this chapter is used to denote “Crimean Tatars” in Romania unless otherwise is noted. The Romanian regime and Tatars themselves have identified themselves as “Tatars” until 1990s although ethnically they are Crimean Tatars, having no relation to Volga/Kazan Tatars. After 1990s, Crimean Tatar self-identification emerged although legally and institutionally they are identified as “Tatars” in Romania.
- 2.
According to 2002 census, the Crimean Tatars are 24,137, and Turks are 32,596 people. However, Tatar organizations estimate the number is around 50,000, as many Tatars identify themselves as Turks for various reasons. According to 2011 census, the Crimean Tatars are 20,282, and Turks are 27,698. However, Tatar organizations estimate the number is around 50,000 as many Tatars identify themselves as Turks for various reasons. http://www.recensamantromania.ro/noutati/volumul-ii-populatia-stabila-rezidenta-structura-etnica-si-confesionala/. Accessed 10 February 2021.
- 3.
Biz ketermız Kırım’dan cıyınday toyday aytır da cılarman
..Od bastırıp ketermiz ey yar kapını ceklep aytır da cılarman
…Her şiyden de tatlı eken ey yar öz tuvgan curtum aytır da cılarman
…Tüşse Kırım akılga aytır da cılarman içim kaynay aytır da cılarman (Özenbaşlı, 2004, 72–73)
- 4.
Akalar ırgad bolgan son ey yar babalar kahya aytır da cılarman
Caş tataylar hizmetkar ey yar analar daya aytır da cılarman
Borç dep bildik koçüvni ey yar Ak Toprakka aytır da cılarman
El bagladık kaderge ey yar sıgındık Hakka aytır da cılarman (Özenbaşlı, 2004, 72)
- 5.
The Ottomans additionally accorded a certain degree of political autonomy for the Crimean Tatars who were allowed governance by their own kaymakam (governor), Khan Mirza, who is a member of the dynasty of the Crimean Khans. The Crimean Geray dynasty multiplied in Dobruca and maintained their respected position (Williams, 2001).
- 6.
Ak topraknın yalısı bizge tiymiy
Padişah Bergen iki öküz gah desem cürmiy
Bilalmadım men kıblamam sırtım
Her şiyden de tatlı eken öz tuvgan curtum
(A. K., 1969: 38)
- 7.
Demiroğlu argues that prominent Crimean Tatars and Turks were deported from Dobruca to Moldova to live in camps and carry out forced labor. They were infected with typhus and the Spanish flu epidemics in Moldova at the time, and very few could return to their villages (Demiroğlu, 1983, 33). However, there is not enough research to corroborate this fact.
- 8.
The purpose of the Dobruca Sedası was “cultural activity among the Muslims.” It was a scientific and political journal. It was distributed in Bulgaria, Turkey, and other parts of the Turkic people. It continued for one and a half year. Then came Teşvik, which also continued for one and a half year. Mehmet Niyazi published this with Abdulhakim Bekir. This was a sister journal of Dobruca Sedası. It also aimed to do service to homeland and defend the rights of its people. The income of both newspapers would be sent to Muslim schools in villages. (Dobruca Sedası 3, 23 Nisan 1910) On the 1st of February, 1914, in Mecidiye (Medgidia), he published the newspaper Işık with the financial support of Cevdet Kemal. The editor of this newspaper was İbrahim Temo. This newspaper also aimed to advocate for the rights of Muslims. It promised enlightenment and emphasized the significance of science and education. Mehmet Niyazi, Halil Fehim, and Omer Lutfi, the teacher of Mecidiye Saminary, supported this newspaper with their articles. In the Işık publishing house, in 1915 Mehmet Niyazi also published the journal Mektep ve Aile (School and Family). This also emphasized education and significance of teachers. After the war started, Halil Fehim published Dobruca, to which Mehmet Niyazi sent articles. Dobruca was closed in 1923. In 1921, Mehmet Niyazi published the Tan newspaper in Pazarcık (Dobrich), which aimed to work towards the interests of Romania and all Dobrujan Muslims. Between 1920 and 1930, he published many articles in the newspapers in Silistre and Pazarcık (Dobrich) (Ülküsal, 1966, 158–159).
- 9.
Many testimonies supporting this fact was given in the documentary prepared by Zafer Karatay and Neşe Karatay (2006) titled “Gamalı Haç ve Kızıl Yıldız Arasında” (Between Swastika and Red Star).
- 10.
Many Tatar officers and soldiers from Dobruja, among them Caliacra mufti Halil Fehmi in the Romanian army passed to Crimea during the war. He was elected to the Qurultay and became vice-president of Religious Affairs. In 1918, 30 Tatar young men between 17 and 22 replied immediately to Bekir Odabaş’ request of teachers to work in Crimea. Mehmet Niyazi, and Doctor Mehmet Nuri went to Crimea in 1917. Müstecip Ülküsal notes that in addition to himself, Mehmet Niyazi’s brother Faik, his nephew Rıza and Çolak Faik also served as teachers in Qurultay period (Ülküsal, 2006). Abdurrezzak Bey met Çelebi Cihan at Vefa İdadisi (High School). He became a soldier in the Romanian army. After the Bolshevik takeover of the Crimean government, by the aid of a Tatar he met in Russian army, he passed to Crimea and began to teach in Zincirli Madrasa in Crimea. Many Tatars from the diaspora had to leave Crimea a while after the Bolshevik invasion and beginning of famine in 1919 and 1920.
- 11.
Doctor Ragıp Refik from Istanbul, and Safaaddin R. Karanakçı who also studied in Bucharest collaborated him in this period (Dobrucalı, 1963, 17).
- 12.
Pazarcık youth staged “Şahingiray,”“Bora” (by Halil Kırımman), and “Kurban Bayramı Gecesi” (Yurtsever, 1983).
- 13.
Emel had 12 founders. Reşit Aliosman (1899–1967) after finishing Pazarcık Secondary School entered into trades. He joined Pazarcık Türk Kültür ve Spor Cemiyeti. He immigrated to Turkey during the Second World War and settled in Polatlı, Ankara. Other members were teacher Mehmet Vani, teacher Tahsin İbrahim, teacher Rıfat Mithat, Necip Hacı Fazıl, a Medgidia Seminary graduate, Kâzım Seydahmet, tradesmen Emin ve Mehmet and Zekeriya (Bektöre) brothers, Abdulhamit Hafız Veli, taylor Huseyin Hacı Abdullah (Ülküsal, 1999).
- 14.
In the “Hakimiyet-i Milliye” newspaper in Turkey, an article was published by Reşit Safvet dated November 6, 1930. In this article, it was reported that some Turks of Crimean origin conduct “Tatarcılık” (Tatarism) and in these efforts, they were supported by the Romanian government and received funds from it. He argued that this is a harmful movement. Emel was declared to be totally alienated from the movement of Anatolian Turkism and even against it. Cafer Seydahmet responded this criticism by an article published in Cumhuriyet on November 12, 1930.
- 15.
Among them who sent articles, poems to Emel from Turkey was Raşit Aşki Özkırım.
- 16.
The contacts with Tatar and Karaim communities of Poland were strengthened in this period. The Tatar community was the descendants of the soldiers of the Golden Horde, who married and settled in Poland in the fourteenth century. Although the community lost its language completely, Islam became an important cause for the maintenance of identity for this community. The prominent activist, Edige Kırımal, who negotiated the Crimean Tatar interests with Germans during the Second World War was a Polish Tatar. Many Crimean Tatar students studied in Poland in the interwar era. The gratitude of the Crimean Tatars was so much that small number of Tatars offered themselves as soldiers to Poland during the Second World War as a symbol of fraternity.
- 17.
Some publications in interwar era were: Sagış (Mehmet Niyazi, 1931), Tevârih-i Tatar Han ve Dağıstan ve Moskov ve Deşt-i Kıpçak Ülkelerinindir( Kefeli İbrahim, 1736, ed. Cafer. Seyyid Ahmed, Pazarcık 1933), Kırım İstiklal Davası (Selim Ortay, 1939) Dobruca ve Türkler (Müstecip Ülküsal, 1940, Emel Publications: Köstence).
- 18.
The committee was composed of Mehmet Vani, Mufti Mustafa Ahmet, Tevfik İslâm, İbadula Abdula, Nazif Abdurahim, Fevzi İbrahim, Selim Ablakim, Kasap Kâzım, Kasap Şükri, and Amdi Nusret, the lawyer and publisher of the journal Halk.
- 19.
Ali Bekmambet, Irsmambet Yusuf, Eyup Menali, Ferat Faik, Mehmet Vani, and Müstecip Hüseyin continued committee work.
- 20.
The editor of Halk-Poporul was Amdi Nusret (Orlu) who had to escape to Turkey in 1949 due to communist persecution.
- 21.
Some examples of such works were Cavşılık [Family in-law] and Caş Fidanlar [Young Saplings](Necip Hacı Fazıl, 1933), Kırım [Crimea](Necip Hacı Fazıl), Bayram Şenliği [Eid Holiday] (Müstecip Hacı Fazıl), Kartman Caş arasında [Between Elderly and Young] (Mehmet Vani, 1934), Toy [Wedding] (Mehmet Vani, 1934), Ödelek [Coward] (Mehmet Vani,1934), Kurtuluş Bayramı [Liberation Day] (Mehmet Vani, 1934), Kurban Bayram Gecesi (Eid Night] (Mehmet Vani, 1938), Kökköz Bayar [Blue-Eyed Bayar] (Mehmet Vani), Büyülü Cımırta [Magic Egg] (Mehmet Vani), Uyuşmagan Eki Arkadaş [Two Friends who don’t fit] (Mehmet Vani), Bora [Storm] (Halil Abdülhakim Kırımman), Çora Batır[A Crimean Tatar Legendary Hero].
- 22.
Between 1923 and 1949, from Romania 79.287 people migrated to Turkey as “registered” migrants. 43.271 people migrated with “free migrant status.” Due to Southern Dobruja’s transfer to Bulgaria (1939), 8000 Tatars and Turks were left for Turkey in 1952 (Williams, 2001).
- 23.
In fact, some Tatars took part in anti-communist armed resistance between 1949 and 1953, in particular in actions of the Gogu Puiu group (Şerif Şerif), Dumitru Mihailescu group (Selim Rıza, Seyfullah Ömer, and Ekrem Mamut) or the organization Regională Mareav (Ali Osman Bekmambet and Refik Cumali). According to Güner Akmolla, Imam Müstecip Samedin, Imam Ablay, Bucharest Imam Sali Regep, doctor Reşat Kamil, teacher Lütfi, lawyer Osman Nuri, school inspector Sacit Ali Muttalip, Police Chief Şükrü İbrahim were also sentenced to hard labor with similar accusations (Emel-Ideal).
- 24.
“Memoirs from the Prison” (“Cezaevlerinden Hatıralar”) of Mehmet Vani Yurtsever was published in Karadeniz 48–54 in1997.
- 25.
The Second Tatar Group included Salim Cafer, Abdula Ablay, Ablamit İzzet, Reşit Kadır, and Faik Ferhat.
- 26.
Deportation was not uncommon practice of the era. Jews were deported during the war. After the Second World War, thousands of Romania’s ethnic Germans were deported to the Soviet Union. The Romanian Communists later expropriated the ethnic Germans’ land and forced them onto collective farms and into factories. Roma and Yugoslavians were also deported.
- 27.
Several of my interviewees lamented the previous state of muftiate. Indeed religious practice especially in the communal form (such as Hajj, praying in a mosque) drastically decreased under communism due to this controlled nature of Islam and risks of public participation in religious activity for the participants. Medet Nezir, imam of the Bucharest mosque in the communist era told that when he worked as the imam of the Bucharest Mosque, he did not have much of a Muslim jamaat. Mostly foreigners such as Arabs or members of the Turkish consulate attended the prayers. The Muslims continued their private praying, sacrifice rituals, and circumcision (Interview).
- 28.
Zeytula Mambet, Ahmet Naci Cafer Ali, İsmail Ziyaeddin, Mehmet Ablay, Muratça Seytabdula, Ekrem Menlibay Ömer Lütfü, Habib Hilmi, and Mustafa Ahmet worked in this process of preparing a new alphabet and textbooks, as well as educating teachers. Tahsin İbrahim, Mehmet Vani, Mustafa Ahmet, and Necip Resul were persecuted in this era.
- 29.
In 1981, Mehmet Ali Ekrem, a professor at the Department of Turkology, at the Bucharest University published Bülbül Sesi, a collection of Tatar folk literature. Tahsin Gamil published his doctoral thesis on Tatar history in 1979 by the Academy of Romanian Socialist Republic. The Kriterion Press continued to publish minority folkloric material, such as Boztorgay, Bülbül Sesi, Bozcigit, Ayuw Fulak Batur, Tepegöz- Dobruca Masalları in Crimean Tatar in the 1980s and 1990s.
- 30.
Gemil, Tahsin. 1997. Originea tătarilor. Locul lor in Romania si in lumea turcă. Lucrările Simpozionului internaţional (Constanţa, 17–20 November1994), Editura Kriterion: Bucharest, Mehmet Ali Ekrem, 1994. Din istoria turcilor dobrogeni (From the History of Dobrogean Turks), Bucureşti: Kriterion, Ablay, Mehmet. 1997. Din Istoria Tatarilor. De la Ginghis Han la Gorbaciov. Bucureşti: Ed. Kriterion.
- 31.
In 1995, 1998, 2002, 2010, the series of conferences on Tatar past, today and futures was organized by the UDTTMR and conference presentations were published as books. Other conferences such as the International Conference on “Preserving the Diversity of Regional and Minority Languages in the Black Sea Region” were organized in Bucharest in December 2008. (Cemilev, and other Crimean Tatars from Crimea and Romania participated.) Conferences on Müstecip Ülküsal, İsmail Gasprinskiy, Hamdi Giraybay, and Necip Hacı Fazıl were also organized.
- 32.
Romania did not permit the use of the Turkish school textbooks beginning from 1995. Therefore, Crimean Tatar scholars Bektas Behic, Servet Baubec, and Yaşar Memedemin prepared Turkish textbooks for Romanian schools. Turkish schools, which are operated and supported by Turkey are not still recognized as equivalent to Romanian schools with 10 years of compulsory education. For, Turkish and Tatar children, education in mother language (Turkish) is not recognized as compulsory but voluntary. There is no financial support for education in mother tongue. The government does not pay salaries of teachers instructing mother tongue classes. Turkish language education is scheduled to Saturday or Sunday, or to an extra hour after school, which makes students reluctant to attend. (Interview).
- 33.
In 1990, Turks and Tatars formed a common organization, the Union of Democratic Tatar-Turk Muslims of Romania. (UDTTMR) However, in 1991 this organization was divided into Turkish and Tatar organizations due to conflict of interest among the elites. Turkish elites, who believed that they deserve a higher political power due their kin-state and who have more population than Tatars did not want to be dominated by Tatars who generally have higher social status and traditionally dominated in Muslim and societal organizations in Romania. More importantly, if there were two separate ethnic organizations, they could each receive 300,000 Euros from Romania instead of sharing that money. Moreover, there is one Tatar and one Turkish parliamentarian in the parliament now, instead of one representing both communities (anonymous interviewee).
- 34.
Negiat Sali also founded Ömürşa ((Valea Seacă) and Hasanşa(Valu lui Traian) branches. He served as the president of the UDTTMR between 1997 and 2000.
- 35.
Tahsin Gamil was born in 1943. He studied history at Bucharest “Nicolea Iorga” Romanian Akademy and received his Ph.D. in 1976. He worked at the University of Constanta. He became an MP and represented the UDTTMR in the Romanian parliament.
- 36.
Saladin Acakay, Ömer Kenan, Kerim Necadin, Tekin Amed, Naci Geafer are some of the Tatar businessmen.
- 37.
The presidents of the UDTTMR were Tahsin Gamil, Şükri Bavbek, Menlibay Ekrem, Mambet Ünal, Negiat Sali, Yusuf Temuçin, and Acakay Seladin. Tatar MPs were Tahsin Gamil, Şaganay Nusret, Negiat Sali, Amet Aladin. İzzet Menan, Mambet Ünal, Ekrem Gaffar, and Menan Samir represented UDTTMR in the local governments.
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Aydın, F.T. (2021). Crimean Tatar Community in Romania (1900–): From Exile to Diaspora Nationalism. In: Émigré, Exile, Diaspora, and Transnational Movements of the Crimean Tatars. Palgrave Studies in Citizenship Transitions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74124-2_4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74124-2_4
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