Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Persistent Organic Pollutants (Part I): The “Dirty Dozen” – Sources and Adverse Effects

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Organic Pollutants

Abstract

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are carbon-based pollutants existing in our environment for extended periods of time. POPs are of global concern due to their far-reaching presence in the environment. They are present in the lithosphere (soil), hydrosphere (water), biosphere (living beings), and atmosphere (air). Both natural and anthropogenic forms of POPs are known. POPs can be considered as “forever chemicals” as they are resistant to degradation in the ecosystem via biologically, chemically, and photolytically to varying degrees and as such are persistent in our environment. They have the ability to biomagnify via the food chain and can bioaccumulate in the various organisms in the ecosystem due to their high lipid solubility. They can be transported over long distances by water and wind and are found in many regions where there are no major sources of POPs. The comprehensive pollution of the environment and living organisms by POPs has resulted in acute as well as chronic toxic effects in many living species. Under the leadership of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Stockholm Convention of Persistent Organic Pollutants was held in 2001. In this treaty, 12 classes of organic chemicals (also referred as the “dirty dozen”) were identified as POPs. In this chapter, the source, structure, general characteristics, and uses of the intentionally produced and unintentionally formed “dirty dozen” will be disclosed. The major adverse effects caused by the “dirty dozen” on human health and the environment will be also summarized.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdallah, M. A.-E. (2015). Persistent organic pollutants. In R. M. Harrison & R. E. Hester (Eds.), Still only one earth: Progress in the 40 years since the first UN conference on the environment (issues in environmental science and technology) (pp. 150–186). Cambridge, UK: RSC Publishing.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Alaluusua, S., Calderara, P., Gerthoux, P. M., Lukinmaa, P.-L., Kovero, O., Needham, L., Patterson, D. G., Jr., Tuomisto, J., & Mocarelli, P. (2004). Developmental dental aberrations after the dioxin accident in Seveso. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112, 1313–1318.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alharbi, O. M. L., Basheer, A. A., Khattab, R. A., & Ali, I. (2018). Health and environmental effects of persistent organic pollutants. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 263, 442–453.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alley, E. G. (1973). The use of Mirex in control of the imported fire ant. Journal of Environmental Quality, 2, 52–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Saleh, I., Echeverria-Quevedo, A., Al-Dgaither, S., & Faris, R. (1998). Residue levels of organochlorinated insecticides in breast milk: A preliminary report from Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology, 17, 37–50.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aoki, Y. (2001). Polychlorinated biphenyls, polychloronated dibenzo-p-dioxins, and polychlorinated dibenzofurans as endocrine disrupters—What we have learned from Yusho disease. Environmental Research, 86, 2–11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arisawa, K., Takeda, H., & Mikasa, H. (2005). Background exposure to PCDDs/PCDFs/PCBs and its potential health effects: A review of epidemiologic studies. The Journal of Medical Investigation, 52, 10–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, R. E. (2001). Global hexachlorobenzene emissions. Chemosphere, 43, 167–182.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, J. L., Sweetman, A. J., van Wijk, D., & Jones, K. C. (2005). Hexachlorobenzene in the global environment: Emissions, levels, distribution, trends and processes. Science of the Total Environment, 349, 1–44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartoš, T., Škarek, M., Čupr, P., Kosubová, P., & Holoubek, I. (2005). Genotoxic activity of a technical toxaphene mixture and its photodegradation products in SOS genotoxicity tests. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental, 565, 113–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beasley, H. L., Phongkham, T., Daunt, M. H., Guihot, S. L., & Skerritt, J. H. (1998). Development of a panel of immunoassays for monitoring DDT, its metabolites, and analogues in food and environmental matrices. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46, 3339–3352.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bidleman, T. F., Jantunen, L. M. M., Helm, P. A., Brorström-Lundén, E., & Juntto, S. (2002). Chlordane enantiomers and temporal trends of chlordane isomers in arctic air. Environmental Science & Technology, 36, 539–544.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bidleman, T. F., Jantunen, L. M. M., Wilberg, K., Harner, T., Brice, K. A., Su, K., Falconer, R. L., Leone, A. D., Aigner, E. J., & Parkhurst, W. J. (1998). Soil as a source of atmospheric heptachlor epoxide. Environmental Science & Technology, 32, 1546–1548.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bock, K. W., & Köhle, C. (2006). Ah receptor: Dioxin-mediated toxic responses as hints to deregulated physiologic functions. Biochemical Pharmacology, 72, 393–404.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonefeld-Jørgensen, E. C., Autrup, H., & Hansen, J. C. (1997). Effect of toxaphene on estrogen receptor functions in human breast cancer cells. Carcinogenesis, 18, 1651–1654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A. S., Cheslack-Postava, K., Rantakokko, P., Kiviranta, H., Hinkka-Yli-Salomäki, S., McKeague, I. W., Surcel, H. M., & Sourander, A. (2018). Association of maternal insecticide levels with autism in offspring from a National Birth Cohort. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 1094–1101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, S. E., Hassett, J. P., & Rossi, M. V. (1997). Mechanistic implications of the intrahumic dechlorination of mirex. Environmental Science & Technology, 31, 1365–1371.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Campagna, A. F., Eler, M. N., Fracácio, R., Rodrigues, B. K., & Verani, N. F. (2007). The toxic potential of aldrin and heptachlor on Danio rerio juveniles (Cypriniformes, Cyprinidae). Ecotoxicology, 16, 289–298.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, D. O. (2013). Effects of persistent and bioactive organic pollutants on human health. Wiley.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Carson, R. (1962). Silent spring. Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chao, H. R., Wang, S. L., Lin, L. Y., Lee, W. J., & Päpke, O. (2007). Placental transfer of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans, and biphenyls in Taiwanese mothers in relation to menstrual cycle characteristics. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 45, 259–265.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chauhan, K. R., Kodavanti, P. R. S., & McKinney, J. D. (2000). Assessing the role of ortho-substitution on polychlorinated biphenyl binding to transthyretin, a thyroxine transport proteind. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 162, 10–21.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chu, I., Villeneuve, D. C., Secours, V. E., Valli, V. E., & Becking, G. C. (1981). Effects of photomirex and mirex on reproduction in the rat. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 60, 549–556.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chu, I., Secours, V., Vilieneuve, D. C., Valli, V. E., Nakamura, A., Colin, D., Clegg, D. J., & Arnold, E. P. (1988). Reproduction study of toxaphene in the rat. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part. B, 23, 101–126.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, B. A., Cirillo, P. M., Wolff, M. S., Schwingl, P. J., Cohen, R. D., Scholtz, R. I., Ferrara, A., Christianson, R. E., van den Berg, B. J., & Siiteri, P. K. (2003). DDT and DDE exposure in mothers and time to pregnancy in daughters. Lancet, 361, 2205–2206.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, B. A., Wolff, M. S., Cirillo, P. M., & Scholtz, R. I. (2007). DDT and breast cancer in young women: New data on the significance of age at exposure. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115, 1406–1414.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, M. B., Trabert, B., & McGlynn, K. A. (2011). Organochlorine compounds and testicular dysgenesis syndrome: Human data. International Journal of Andrology, 34, e68–e85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coster, S. D., & van Larebeke, N. (2012). Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: Associated disorders and mechanisms of action. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2012, 713696.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darling, S. F. (1945). The laboratory preparation of DDT. Journal of Chemical Education, 22, 170–170.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Datta, S., Ohyama, K., Dunlap, D. Y., & Matsumara, F. (1999). Evidence for organochlorine contamination in tissues of salmonids in Lake Tahoe. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 42, 94–101.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Boer, J., & Wester, P. G. (1993). Determination of toxaphene in human milk from Nicaragua and in fish and marine mammals from the northeastern Atlantic and the North Sea. Chemosphere, 27, 1879–1890.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dearth, M. A., & Hites, R. A. (1991). Complete analysis of technical chlordane using negative ionization mass spectrometry. Environmental Science & Technology, 25, 245–254.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DeKoning, E. P., & Karmaus, W. (2000). PCB exposure in utero and via breast milk. A review. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 10, 285–293.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunlap, T. R. (2014). DDT: Scientists, citizens, and public policy. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egeler, P., Meller, M., Roembke, J., & Spoerlein, P. (2001). Biomagnification of hexachlorobenzene. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 8, 230–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • El-Bayomy, A. A., Smoak, I. W., & Branch, S. (2002). Embryotoxicity of the pesticide mirex in vitro. Teratogenesis, Carcinogenesis, and Mutagenesis, 22, 239–249.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • El-Shahawi, M. S., Hamza, A., Bashammakh, A. S., & Al-Saggaf, W. T. (2010). An overview on the accumulation, distribution, transformations, toxicity and analytical methods for the monitoring of persistent organic pollutants. Talanta, 80, 1587–1597.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eskenazi, B., Mocarelli, P., Warner, M., Samuels, S., Vercellini, P., Olive, D., Needham, L. L., Patterson, D. G., Jr., Brambilla, P., Gavoni, N., Casalini, S., Panazza, S., Turner, W., & Gerthoux, P. M. (2002). Serum dioxin concentrations and endometriosis: A cohort study in Seveso, Italy. Environmental Health Perspectives, 110, 629–634.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evangelou, E., Ntritsos, G., Chondrogiorgi, M., Kavvoura, F. K., Hernández, A. F., Ntzani, E. E., & Tzoulaki, I. (2016). Exposure to pesticides and diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environment International, 91, 60–68.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Everett, J. C., & Thompson, O. M. (2016). Association of PCDDs, PCDFs and dioxin-like PCBs in human blood with nephropathy among US teens and young adults. Reviews on Environmental Health, 31, 195–201.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Faroon, O., Kueberuwa, S., Smith, L., & DeRosa, C. (1995). ATSDR evaluation of health effects of chemicals. II. Mirex and chlordecone: Health effects, toxicokinetics, human exposure, and environmental fate. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 11, 1–203.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fenoglio, C., Grosso, A., Boncompagni, E., Gandini, C., Milanesi, G., & Barni, S. (2009). Exposure to heptachlor: Evaluation of the effects on the larval and adult epidermis of Rana kl. esculenta. Aquatic Toxicology, 91, 151–160.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-González, R., Yebra-Pimentel, I., Martínez-Carballo, E., & Simal-Gándara, J. (2015). A critical review about human exposure to Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins (PCDDs), Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) through foods. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 55, 1590–1617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferreira, I., Venâncio, C., Lopes, I., & Oliveira, M. (2019). Nanoplastics and marine organisms: What has been studied? Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 67, 1–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fiandanese, N., Borromeo, V., Berrini, A., Fischer, B., Schaedlich, K., Schimdt, J.-S., Secchi, C., & Pocar, P. (2016). Maternal exposure to a mixture of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) causes reproductive dysfunction in adult male mouse offspring. Reproductive Toxicology, 65, 123–132.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fulton, M. H., Key, P. B., & DeLorenzo, M. E. (2013). Insecticide toxicity in fish. In K. B. Tierney, A. P. Farrell, & C. J. Brauner (Eds.), Fish physiology: Organic chemical toxicology of fishes (Vol. 33, pp. 309–368). USA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gauthier, M., Roberge, C. J., Pelletier, M., Tessier, P. A., & Girard, D. (2001). Activation of human neutrophils by technical Toxaphene. Clinical Immunology, 98, 46–53.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Geisz, H. N., Dickhut, R. M., Cochran, M. A., Fraser, W. R., & Ducklow, H. W. (2008). Melting glaciers: A probable source of DDT to the Antarctic marine ecosystem. Environmental Science & Technology, 42, 3958–3962.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Geusau, A., Abraham, K., Geissler, K., Sator, M. O., Stingl, G., & Tschachler, E. (2001). Severe 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) intoxication: Clinical and laboratory effects. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109, 865–869.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Geusau, A., Schmaldienst, S., Derfler, K., Päpke, O., & Abraham, K. (2002). Severe 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) intoxication: Kinetics and trials to enhance elimination in two patients. Archives of Toxicology, 76, 316–325.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, U. S., Schwartz, H. M., Wheatley, B., & Parlar, H. (1996). Congener specific analysis of toxaphene in serum using ECNI-MS. Chemosphere, 33, 1021–1025.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Godish, T. (2001). Indoor environmental quality (1st ed., pp. 110–130). Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, J. I., Brusick, D. J., Busey, W. M., Cohen, S. M., Lamb, J. C., & Starr, T. B. (2000). Reevaluation of the cancer potency factor of toxaphene: Recommendations from a peer review panel. Toxicological Sciences, 55, 3–16.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo, Y., Yu, H.-Y., & Zeng, E. Y. (2009). Occurrence, source diagnosis, and biological effect assessment of DDT and its metabolites in various environmental compartments of the Pearl River Delta, South China: A review. Environmental Pollution, 157, 1753–1763.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, P., Thompson, B. L., Wahlang, B., Jordon, C. T., Hilt, J. Z., Henning, B., & Dziubla, T. (2018). The environmental pollutant, polychlorinated biphenyls, and cardiovascular disease: A potential target for antioxidant nanotherapeutics. Drug Delivery and Translational Research, 8, 740–759.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haffner, D., & Schecter, A. (2014). Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): A primer for practicing clinicians. Current Environmental Health Reports, 1, 123–131.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halsall, C. J. (2007). Environmental organic chemistry. In R. M. Harrison (Ed.), Principles of environmental chemistry (pp. 279–313). Cambridge, UK: RSC Publishing.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, R. M., & Harrad, S. (2001). The environmental behaviour of persistent organic pollutants. In R. M. Harrison (Ed.), Pollution: Causes, effects and control (4th ed., pp. 445–473). Cambridge, UK: RSC Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, W. J. (2010). Handbook of pesticide toxicology: Classes of pesticides (Vol. 3). Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hester, R. E., Harrison, R. M., & Atkinson, R. (1995). Atmospheric chemistry of PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs. In R. M. Harrison & R. E. Hester (Eds.), Chlorinated organic micropollutants (issues in environmental science and technology) (pp. 53–72). RSC Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmstead, R. L., Khalifa, S., & Casida, J. E. (1974). Toxaphene composition analyzed by combined gas chromatography-chemical ionization mass spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 22, 939–944.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Honeycutt, M., & Jones, L. (2014). Endrin. In P. Wexler (Ed.), Encyclopedia of toxicology (pp. 344–347). Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hooker, E. P., Fulcher, K. G., & Gibb, H. J. (2013). Aldrin and Dieldrin: A reevaluation of the cancer and noncancer dose-response assessments. Risk Analysis, 34, 865–878.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, D.-J., Chen, H.-C., Wu, J.-P., & Wang, S.-Y. (2006). Reproduction obstacles for the female green neon shrimp (Neocaridina denticulata) after exposure to chlordane and lindane. Chemosphere, 64, 11–16.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, D.-J., Wang, S.-Y., & Chen, H.-C. (2004). Effects of the endocrine disrupter chemicals chlordane and lindane on the male green neon shrimp (Neocaridina denticulata). Chemosphere, 57, 1621–1627.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, M. C., Chao, H. R., Wang, S. L., Hung, H. C., Wang, Y. S., & Pan, W. H. (2007). Associations of diet with body burden of dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Observations on pregnant women from central Taiwan. Food Additives and Contaminants, 24, 784–791.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huckins, J. N., Stalling, D. L., Petty, J. D., Buckler, D. R., & Johnson, B. T. (1982). Fate of Kepone and mirex in the aquatic environment. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 30, 1020–1027.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jamshidi, A., Hunder, S., Hazrati, S., & Harrad, S. (2007). Concentrations and chiral signatures of polychlorinated biphenyls in outdoor and indoor air and soil in a major U.K. conurbation. Environmental Science & Technology, 41, 2153–2158.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jorgenson, J. L. (2011). Aldrin and Dieldrin: A review of research on their production, environmental deposition and fate, bioaccumulation, toxicology, and epidemiology in the United States. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109, 113–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jubb, A. H. (1975). Basic organic chemistry, part 5 industrial products. London: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser, K. L. E. (1978). Pesticide report: The rise and fall of mirex. Environmental Science & Technology, 12, 520–528.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kania-Korwel, I., & Lehmler, H.-J. (2013). Chlordane and heptachlor are metabolized enantioselectively by rat liver microsomes. Environmental Science & Technology, 47, 8913–8922.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katarzyńska, D., Hrabia, A., Kowalik, K., & Sechman, A. (2015). Comparison of the in vitro effects of TCDD, PCB 126 and PCB 153 on thyroid-restricted gene expression and thyroid hormone secretion by the chicken thyroid gland. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 39, 496–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khanjani, N., Hoving, J. L., Forbes, A. B., & Sim, M. R. (2007). Systematic review and meta-analysis of cyclodiene insecticides and breast cancer. Journal of Environmental Science and Health – Part C, 25, 23–52.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Konishi, K., Sasaki, S., Kato, S., Ban, S., Washino, N., Kajiwara, J., Todaka, T., Hirakawa, H., Hori, T., Yasutake, D., & Kishi, R. (2009). Prenatal exposure to PCDDs/PCDFs and dioxin-like PCBs in relation to birth weight. Environmental Research, 109, 906–913.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kransler, K. M., McGarrigle, B. P., & Olson, J. R. (2007). Comparative developmental toxicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in the hamster, rat and guinea pig. Toxicology, 229, 214–225.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kulkarni, P. S., Crespo, J. G., & Afonso, C. A. M. (2008). Dioxins sources and current remediation technologies — A review. Environment International, 34, 139–153.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumagai, S., Koda, S., Miyakita, T., & Ueno, M. (2002). Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and dibenzofuran concentrations in serum samples of workers at intermittently burning municipal waste incinerators in Japan. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 59, 362–368.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lallas, P. L. (2001). The Stockholm convention of persistent organic pollutants. American Journal of International Law, 95, 692–708.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambrych, K. L., & Hassett, J. P. (2006). Wavelength-dependent photoreactivity of Mirex in Lake Ontario. Environmental Science & Technology, 40, 858–863.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leng, L., Li, J., Luo, X.-m., J-y, K., Y-m, L., Guo, X.-m., Chen, X., Yang, Q.-y., Li, G., & N-j, T. (2016). Polychlorinated biphenyls and breast cancer: A congener-specific meta-analysis. Environment International, 88, 133–141.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leonards, P. E. G., Besseling, H., Klungsøyr, J., McHugh, B., Nixon, E., Rimkus, G. G., Brouwer, A., & de Boer, J. (2012). Toxicological risks to humans of toxaphene residues in fish. Integrated Environmental Assessment, 8, 523–529.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, M., Nøst, T. H., Wania, F., Papp, E., Herzke, D., Mahmud, A. A., & Roth, D. E. (2020). Maternal-child exposures to persistent organic pollutants in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Expo Health, 12, 79–87.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liem, A. K. D., Furst, P., & Rappe, C. (2000). Exposure of populations to dioxins and related compounds. Food Additives and Contaminants, 17, 241–259.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lim, J.-E., Nam, C., Yang, J., Rha, K. H., Lim, K.-M., & Jee, S. H. (2017). Serum persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and prostate cancer risk: A case-cohort study. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 220, 849–856.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lim, J.-E., Park, S. H., Jee, S. H., & Park, H. (2015). Body concentrations of persistent organic pollutants and prostate cancer: A meta-analysis. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 22, 11275–11284.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Longnecker, M. P., Rogan, W. J., & Lucier, G. (1997). The human health effects of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and PCBS (polychlorinated biphenyls) and an overview of organochlorines in public health. Annual Review of Public Health, 18, 211–244.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luderer, U., Kesner, J. S., Fuller, J. M., Krieg, E. F., Jr., Meadows, J. W., Tramma, S. L., Yang, H., & Baker, D. (2013). Effects of gestational and lactational exposure to heptachlor epoxide on age at puberty and reproductive function in men and women. Environmental Research, 121, 84–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lui, J., Morrow, A. L., Devaud, L. L., Grayson, D. R., & Lauder, J. M. (1997). Regulation of GABA(A) receptor subunit mRNA expression by the pesticide dieldrin in embryonic brainstem cultures: A quantitative, competitive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction study. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 49, 645–653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundholm, C. D. (1997). DDE-induced eggshell thinning in birds: effects of p,p'-DDE on the calcium and prostaglandin metabolism of the eggshell gland. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C, 118, 113–128.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mansouri, A., Cregut, M., Abbes, C., Durand, M.-J., Landoulsi, A., & Thouand, G. (2017). The environmental issues of DDT pollution and bioremediation: A multidisciplinary review. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 181, 309–339.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marquès, M., Nadal, M., Díaz-Ferrero, J., & Schuhmacher, D. J. L. (2018). Concentrations of PCDD/Fs in the neighborhood of a hazardous waste incinerator: Human health risks. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, 26470–26481.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martínez-Ibarra, A., Morimoto, S., Cerbón, M., & Prado-Flores, G. (2016). Effects on the reproductive parameters of two generations of Rattus norvegicus offspring from dams exposed to heptachlor during gestation and lactation. Environmental Toxicology, 32, 856–868.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milbrath, M. O., Wenger, Y., Chang, C.-W., Emond, C., Garabrant, D., Gillespie, B. W., & Jolliet, O. (2009). Apparent half-lives of dioxins, furans, and polychlorinated biphenyls as a function of age, body fat, smoking status, and breast-feeding. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117, 417–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moon, H.-B., Lee, D.-H., Lee, Y. S., & Kannan, K. (2011). Concentrations and accumulation profiles of PCDDs, PCDFs and dioxin-like PCBs in adipose fat tissues of Korean women. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 13, 1096–1101.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, D. E., Robertson, B. K., & Alexander, M. (2000). Bioavailability to earthworms of aged DDT, DDE, DDD, and Dieldrin in soil. Environmental Science & Technology, 34, 709–713.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mukerjee, D. (1998). Health impact of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins: A critical review. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association (1995), 48, 157–165.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nash, R. G., Beall, M. L., Jr., & Harris, W. G. (1972). Endrin transformations in soil. Journal of Environmental Quality, 1, 391–394.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oetien, K., & Karl, H. (1998). Levels of toxaphene indicator compounds in fish meal, fish oil and fish feed. Chemosphere, 37, 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olisah, C., Okoh, O. O., & Ohoh, A. I. (2020). Occurrence of organochlorine pesticide residues in biological and environmental matrices in Africa: A two-decade review. Heliyon, 6, e03518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ottolenghi, A. D., Haseman, J. K., & Suggs, F. (1974). Teratogenic effects of aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin in hamsters and mice. Teratology, 9, 11–16.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paraitamby, A., & Kee, Y. L. (2016). Persistent organic pollutants management and remediation. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 31, 842–848.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, R. F., Swackhamer, D. L., Eisenreich, S. J., & Long, D. T. (1997). Concentrations, accumulations, and inventories of Toxaphene in sediments of the Great Lakes. Environmental Science & Technology, 31, 3523–3529.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perez-Rodriguez, V., Wu, N., de la Cova, A., Schmidt, J., Denslow, N. D., & Martyniuk, C. J. (2020). The organochlorine pesticide toxaphene reduces non-mitochondrial respiration and induces heat shock protein 70 expression in early-staged zebrafish (Danio rerio). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C, 228, 108669.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, R. E., Theobald, H. M., & Kimmel, G. L. (1993). Developmental and reproductive toxicity of dioxins and related compounds: CrossSpecies comparisons. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 23, 283–335.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plimmer, J. R. (2003). The Encyclopedia of agrochemicals (Vol. 3). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Pocar, P., Brevini, T. A. L., Antonini, S., & Gandolfi, F. (2006). Cellular and molecular mechanisms mediating the effect of polychlorinated biphenyls on oocyte in vitro maturation. Reproductive Toxicology, 22, 242–249.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pohl, H. R., McClure, P. R., Fay, M., & De Rosa, C. T. (2001). Public health assessment of hexachlorobenzene. Chemosphere, 43, 903–908.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Polese, L., Minelli, E. V., Jardim, E. F. G., & Ribeiro. (1996). Small-scale method for the determination of selected organochlorine pesticides in soil. Fresenius Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 354, 474–476.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Porta, M., & Zumeta, E. (2002). Implementing the Stockholm treaty on persistent organic pollutants. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 59, 651–652.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prado, G., Bhalli, J. A., & Marcos, R. (2009). Genotoxicity of heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide in human TK6 lymphoblastoid cells. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental, 673, 87–91.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prins, H. J. (1946). Syntheses of polychloro compounds with aluminium chloride. VI: The elimination of hydrogen chloride from polychloro compounds and the formation of cyclic compounds. The synthesis of perchlorocyclopentadiene. Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas, 65, 455–467.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Puertas, R., Lopez-Espinosa, M.-J., Cruz, F., Ramos, R., Freire, C., Pérez-García, M., Abril, A., Julvez, J., Salvatierra, M., Campoy, C., & Olea, N. (2010). Prenatal exposure to mirex impairs neurodevelopment at age of 4 years. Neurotoxicology, 31, 154–160.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Purnomo, A. S., Mori, T., Kamei, I., & Kondo, R. (2011). Basic studies and applications on bioremediation of DDT: A review. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 65, 921–930.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Putschögl, F. M., Gaum, P. M., Schettgen, T., Kraus, T., Gube, M., & Lang, J. (2015). Effects of occupational exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls on urinary metabolites of neurotransmitters: A cross-sectional and longitudinal perspective. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 218, 452–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, L., Buchner, V., & Tchounwou, P. B. (2007). Environmental toxicology and health effects associated with hexachlorobenzene exposure. Reviews on Environmental Health, 22, 213–243.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ribas-Fitó, N., Sala, M., Cardo, E., Mazón, C., De Muga, M. E., Verdú, A., Marco, E., Grimalt, J. O., & Sunyer, J. (2002). Association of hexachlorobenzene and other organochlorine compounds with anthropometric measures at birth. Pediatric Research, 52, 163–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, C. P., Samson, P. J., & Noguchi, G. E. (1986). Atmospheric transport of toxaphene to Lake Michigan. Environmental Science & Technology, 20, 1109–1116.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers, K. E. (2001). Immunotoxicity of pesticides. In R. I. Krieger & W. C. Krieger (Eds.), Handbook of pesticide toxicology (2nd ed., pp. 769–782). Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rogan, W. J., & Chen, A. (2005). Health risks and benefits of bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane (DDT). Lancet, 366, 763–773.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rowley, D. L., Rab, M. A., Hardjotanojo, W., Liddle, J., Burse, V. W., Saleem, M., Sokal, D., Falk, H., & Head, S. L. (1987). Convulsions caused by endrin poisoning in Pakistan. Pediatrics, 79, 928–934.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Safe, S. (1990). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and related compounds: Environmental and mechanistic considerations which support the development of toxic equivalency factors (TEFs). Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 21, 51–88.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Safe, S., & Hutzinger, O. (1984). Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBBs): Biochemistry, toxicology, and mechanism of action. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 13, 319–395.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sala, M., Sunyer, J., Otero, R., Santiago-silva, M., Ozalla, D., Herrero, C., Tom-Figuera, J., Kogevinas, M., Anto, J. M., Camps, C., & Grimalt, J. (1997). Health effects of chronic high exposure to Hexachlorobenzene in a general population sample. Archives of Environmental Health An International Journal, 54, 102–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salama, A. K., Bakry, N. M., & Abou-Donia, M. B. (1993). A review article on placental transfer of pesticides. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and and Toxicology, 2, 383–397.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saleh, M. A. (1991). Toxaphene: Chemistry, biochemistry, toxicity and environmental fate. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 118, 1–85.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schecter, A., Brinbaum, L., Ryan, J. J., & Constable, J. D. (2006). Dioxins: An overview. Environmental Research, 101, 419–428.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schecter, A., Cramer, P., Boggess, K., Stanley, J., Päpke, O., Olson, J., Silver, A., & Schmitz, M. (2001). Intake of dioxins and related compounds from food in the U.S. population. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A, 63, 1–18.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, C., Krauth, T., & Wagner, S. (2017). Export of plastic debris by rivers into the sea. Environmental Science & Technology, 51, 12246–12253.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shields, W. J., Saba, T., Boehm, P. D., & Pietari, J. (2015). Congeners: A forensics analysis. In B. L. Murphy & R. D. Morrison (Eds.), Introduction to environmental forensics (3rd ed., pp. 347–393). Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, K.-J., Bae, S. S., Hwang, Y.-A., Seo, J. K., Ryu, S. H., & Suh, P.-G. (2000). 2,2′,4,6,6′-pentachlorobiphenyl induces apoptosis in human monocytic cells. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 169, 1–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, T., Britt, J. K., & James, R. C. (2007). Development of a neurotoxic equivalence scheme of relative potency for assessing the risk of PCB mixtures. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 48, 148–170.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N., Siddarth, M., Ghosh, R., Tripathi, A. K., & Banerjee, B. D. (2019). Heptachlor-induced epithelial to mesenchymal transition in HK-2 cells mediated via TGF-β1/Smad signaling. Human & Experimental Toxicology, 38, 567–577.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. G. (1991). Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. In W. J. Hayes Jr. & E. R. Laws Jr. (Eds.), Handbook of pesticide toxicology (Classes of pesticides) (Vol. 2, pp. 731–915). Academic Press Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soto, A. M., Chung, K. L., & Sonnenschein, C. (1994). The pesticides endosulfan, toxaphene, and dieldrin have estrogenic effects on human estrogen-sensitive cells. Environmental Health Perspectives, 102, 380–383.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Starek-Świechowicz, B., Budziszewska, B., & Starek, A. (2017). Hexachlorobenzene as a persistent organic pollutant: Toxicity and molecular mechanism of action. Pharmacological Reports, 69, 1232–1239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, P., Reihman, J., Lonky, E., Darvill, T., & Pagano, J. (2000). Prenatal PCB exposure and neonatal behavioral assessment scale (NBAS) performance. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 22, 21–29.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suwalsky, M., Rodríguez, C., Villena, F., & Sotomayor, C. P. (2005). Human erythrocytes are affected by the organochloride insecticide chlordane. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 43, 647–654.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tan, Y., Li, D., Song, R., Lawrence, D., & Carpenter, D. O. (2003). Ortho-substituted PCBs kill thymocytes. Toxicological Sciences, 76, 328–337.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tanabe, S., Watanabe, M., Minh, T. B., Kunisue, T., Nakanishi, S., Ono, H., & Tanaka, H. (2004). PCDDs, PCDFs, and coplanar PCBs in albatross from the North Pacific and southern oceans: Levels, patterns, and toxicological implications. Environmental Science & Technology, 38, 403–413.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, H. P.-O. (2013). Recent development in analysis of persistent organic pollutants under the Stockholm Convention. TrAC – Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 45, 48–66.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tate, C. M., & Heiny, J. S. (1996). Organochlorine compounds in bed sediment and fish tissue in the South Platte River Basin, USA, 1992–1993. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 30, 62–78.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tiemann, U. (2008). In vivo and in vitro effects of the organochlorine pesticides DDT, TCPM, methoxychlor, and lindane on the female reproductive tract of mammals: A review. Reproductive Toxicology, 25, 316–326.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • To-Figueras, J., Barrot, C., Rodamilans, M., Gómez-Catalán, J., Torra, M., Brunet, M., Sabater, F., & Corbella, J. (1995). Accumulation of hexachlorobenzene in humans: A long standing risk. Human & Experimental Toxicology, 14, 20–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Totland, C., Nerdal, W., & Steinkopf, S. (2016). Effects and location of coplanar and noncoplanar PCB in a lipid bilayer: A solid-state NMR study. Environmental Science & Technology, 50, 8290–8295.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai, W.-T. (2010). Current status and regulatory aspects of pesticides considered to be Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Taiwan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 7, 3615–3627.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van den Berg, M., Birnbaum, L. S., Denison, M., Vito, M. D., Farland, W., Feeley, M., Fiedler, H., Hakansson, H., Hanberg, A., Haws, L., Rose, M., Safe, S., Schrenk, D., Tohyama, C., Tritscher, A., Tuomisto, J., Tysklind, M., Walker, N., & Peterson, R. E. (2006). The 2005 World Health Organization Reevaluation of human and mammalian toxic equivalency factors for dioxins and dioxin-like compounds. Toxicological Sciences, 93, 223–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Villaescusa, J. (1992). Pesticides in coastal waters of the Gulf of California: Mussel watch program 1987–1988. Ciencias Marinas, 18, 77–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, S., Lu, Y., Han, J., Luo, W., Shi, Y., Wang, T., & Sun, Y. (2010). Hexachlorobenzene sources, levels and human exposure in the environment of China. Environment International, 36, 122–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warner, M., Rauch, S., Ames, J., Mocarelli, P., Brambilla, P., Signorini, S., & Eskenazi, B. (2020). Prenatal dioxin exposure and thyroid hormone levels in the Seveso second generation study. Environmental Research, 183, 109280.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weber, R., Tysklind, M., & Gaus, C. (2008). Dioxin - contemporary and future challenges of historical legacies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 15, 96–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weldon, R. H., Barr, D. B., Trujillo, C., Bradman, A., Holland, N., & Eskenazi, B. (2011). A pilot study of pesticides and PCBs in the breast milk of women residing in urban and agricultural communities of California. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 13, 3136–3144.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wethington, D. M., & Hornbuckle, K. C. (2005). Milwaukee, WI, as a source of atmospheric PCBs to Lake Michigan. Environmental Science & Technology, 39, 57–63.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilhelm, M., Wittsiepe, J., Lemm, F., Ranft, U., Krämer, U., Fürst, P., Röseler, S. C., Greshake, M., Imöhl, M., Eberwein, G., Rauchfuss, K., Kraft, M., & Winneke, G. (2008). The Duisburg birth cohort study: Influence of the prenatal exposure to PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs on thyroid hormone status in newborns and neurodevelopment of infants until the age of 24 months. Mutation Research, 659, 83–92.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winneke, G., Bucholski, A., Heinzow, B., Krämer, U., Schmidt, E., Walkowiak, J., Wiener, J.-A., & Steingrüber, H.-J. (1998). Developmental neurotoxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBS): Cognitive and psychomotor functions in 7-month old children. Toxicology Letters, 102-103, 423–428.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wrobel, M. H., Grzeszczyk, M., Mlynarszuk, J., & Kotwica, J. (2015). The adverse effects of aldrin and dieldrin on both myometrial contractions and the secretory functions of bovine ovaries and uterus in vitro. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 285, 23–31.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wrobel, M. H., & Mlynarczuk, J. (2018). Chlorinated insecticides (toxaphene and endrin) affect oxytocin, testosterone, oestradiol and prostaglandin secretion from ovarian and uterine cells as well as myometrial contractions in cow in vitro. Chemosphere, 198, 432–441.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, L., Li, X., Zhang, P., Melcer, M. E., Wu, Y., & Jans, U. (2012). Concentrations of DDTs and dieldrin in Long Island Sound sediment. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 14, 878–885.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yasuhara, A., Katami, T., & Shibamoto, T. (2003). Formation of PCDDs, PCDFs, and coplanar PCBs from incineration of various woods in the presence of chlorides. Environmental Science & Technology, 37, 1563–1567.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Post Graduate and Research Department of Chemistry, Bishop Heber College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

    Rupesh Narayana Prabhu & Jagadeesan Lakshmipraba

Authors
  1. Rupesh Narayana Prabhu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jagadeesan Lakshmipraba
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rupesh Narayana Prabhu .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Water and Soil Processing Lab Department of Environmental Biotechnology, School of Environmental Sciences Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

    M. Vasanthy

  2. Post Graduate and Research Department of Chemistry, Pachaiyappa’s College (Affiliated to University of Madras), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

    V. Sivasankar

  3. Post Graduate and Research Department of Chemistry, Pachaiyappa’s College (Affiliated to University of Madras), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

    T. G. Sunitha

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Prabhu, R.N., Lakshmipraba, J. (2022). Persistent Organic Pollutants (Part I): The “Dirty Dozen” – Sources and Adverse Effects. In: Vasanthy, M., Sivasankar, V., Sunitha, T.G. (eds) Organic Pollutants. Emerging Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72441-2_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation