Abstract
This chapter focuses on global research findings dealing with various forms of discrimination in the classroom and their impact on students’ performance and learning environments. The synthesis of research evidence suggests that intelligence discrimination, the language of meritocracy employed in schools, modality learning discrimination, race and ethnicity discrimination, social class discrimination, labeling students according to academic achievement, and the self-fulfilling prophecy (SFP) all have a powerful impact on students’ self-esteem, motivation and their potential academic achievement. Research findings also demonstrate a positive correlation between teachers’ perception of their students’ abilities and students’ actual performance in the classroom. The chapter analyses and critiques recent research findings dealing with major forms of discrimination in schools, discriminatory practices, their impact on students and implications for the student’s social identity, self-esteem, academic achievement, human rights and social justice.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abdullah Alwaqassi, S. (2017). The use of multisensory in schools. Indiana University. https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/21663/Master%20Thesis%20in%
Acton, G., & Schroeder, D. (2001). Sensory discrimination as related to general intelligence. Intelligence, 29, 263–271.
Al Sayyed Obaid, M. (2013). The impact of using multi-sensory approach for teaching students with learning disabilities. Journal of International Education Research, 9(1), 75–82. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1010855
American Psychological Association. (2019). Discrimination: What it is, and how to cope. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/topics/discrimination
Atkinson, T. (2018). Discover your learning style. Retrieved from https://medium.com/@tracy.ada.atkinson/discover-your-learning-style-41816f734d7a
Austin, E. (2018, August 27).Teacher bias: The elephant in the classroom: Teacher effectiveness. The Graide Network. Retrieved from The Graide Network website: https://www.thegraidenetwork.com/blog-all/2018/8/1/teacher-bias-the-elephant-in-
Australian Human Rights Commission. (2020). Discrimination. Retrieved from https://humanrights.gov.au/quick-guide/12030
Barbe, W., & Milone, M. Jr. (1981). What we know about modality strengths. Educational Leadership, 38, 378–380.
Baker, B., Keller-Wolff, C., & Wolf-Wendel, L. (2000). Two steps forward, one step back: race/ethnicity and student achievement in education policy research. Educational Policy, 14(4), 511–529.
Behar-Horenstein, L. (2003). Influencing the academic achievement of students at-risk using an integrated learning system. Educational Practice and Theory, 25(1), 65–77.
Bizumic, B., & Duckitt, J. (2012). What is and is not ethnocentrism? A conceptual analysis and political implications. Political Psychology, 33(6), 887–909.
Boaler, J., William, D., & Brown, M. (2000). Students’ experiences of ability grouping: Disaffection, polarisation and the construction of failure. British Educational Research Journal, 26(5), 631–648.
Briggs, S. (2014). Why self-esteem hurts learning but self-confidence does the opposite. Retrieved from https://www.opencolleges.edu.au/informed/features/self-efficacy-and-learning/
Brophy, J. (1983). Research on the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(5), 631–661.
Butler, P., & Weir, K. (2013). Teachers’ views on the effects of streaming according to ‘self-management’ criteria. Kairaranga, 14(2), 3–8.
Canning, E., Muenks, K., Green, D., & Murphy, M. (2019). STEM faculty who believe ability is fixed have larger racial achievement gaps and inspire less student motivation in their classes. Retrieved from https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/2/eaau4734
Carnevale, A. (2013). U.S. higher education deeply stratified along racial lines, study says. Retrieved from: http://diverseeducation.com/article/54956/
Casad, B., & Bryant, W. (2015). Teacher bias. In K. Nadal (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of psychology and gender. Sage. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283350805_Teacher_bias
Chaiklin, S. (2003). The zone of proximal development in Vygotsky’s analysis of learning and instruction. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Learning in doing. Vygotsky’s educational theory in cultural context (pp. 39–64). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511840975.004.
Chmielewski, A. (2014). An International comparison of achievement inequality in within- and between-school tracking systems. American Journal of Education, 120(3), 293–324.
Civil, D., & Himsworth, J. (2020). Introduction: Meritocracy in perspective. In The rise of the meritocracy 60 years on. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1467-923X.12839
Crogman, H., & Trebeau Crogman, M. (2016). Generated questions learning model (GQLM): Beyond learning styles. Retrieved from https://www.cogentoa.com/article/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1202460
Derman-Sparks, L., & Olsen Edwards, J. (1993). Anti-bias education for young children and ourselves. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Dunn, K., & Dunn, R. (1987). Dispelling outmoded beliefs about student learning. Educational Leadership, 44(6), 55–63.
Dunn, R., & Smith, J. B. (1990). Chapter four: Learning styles and library media programs. In J. B. Smith (Ed.), School library media annual (pp. 32–49). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Dunn, R., Shea, T. C., Evans, W., & MacMurren, H. (1991). Learning style and equal protection: The next frontier. Washington, DC: The Clearing House.
Dunn, R., et al. (2009). Impact of learning-style instructional strategies on students’ achievement and attitudes: Perceptions of educators in diverse institutions. The Clearing House, 82(3), 135–140. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30181095
Ferguson, R. (2003). Teachers’ perceptions and expectations and the black-white test score gap. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234731262_Teachers'_Perceptions_and_Expectations_and_the_Black-White_Test_Score_Gap
Fleming, N. D. (2005). VARK: A guide to learning styles. Retrieved from http://www.vark-learn.com/english/index.asp
Fleming, N. D., & Mills, C. (1992). Helping students understand how they learn. The Teaching Professor, 7(4). Magma Publications.
Fontana, D. (1995). Psychology for teachers. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Freeman, K. (2006). ‘If only my eyes were different’: The loss of identity and the underutilization of black children’s educational potential—Rethinking assimilation and social justice. In J. Zajda, S. Majhanovich, & V. Rust (Eds.), Education and social justice (pp. 39–55). Dordrecht: Springer.
Frost, R. (2015). Why is it okay to discriminate on the basis of intelligence? Retrieved from https://www.quora.com/Why-is-it-okay-to-discriminate-on-the-basis-of-intelligence
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic Books.
Gentrup, S., Lorenz, G., Kristen, C., & Kogan, I. (2019). Self-fulfilling prophecies in the classroom: Teacher expectations, teacher feedback and student achievement. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338980640_Self-fulfilling_prophecies_in_the_classroom_Teacher_expectations_teacher_feedback_and_student_achievement
Good, T. & Brophy, J. (1998). Contemporary educational psychology. New York: Longman Publishers.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Goldrick-Rab, S., & Kinsley, P. (2013). Race and inequity. Retrieved from: https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/05/28/consequences-racial-and-economic-stratification-community-colleges/
Gosa, T., & Alexander, C. (2007). Family (Dis) advantage and the educational prospects of better off African American youth: How race still matters. Teachers College Record, 109(2), 285–321.
Graziano, S. (2017, December 5). Discriminatory practices in education: Identification & minimization. Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/discriminatory-practices-in-education-identification-minimization.html
Guilford, J. (1967). The Nature of Human Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hansford, B., & Hattie, J. (1982). The relationship between self and achievement/performance measures. Review of Educational Research, 52(1), 123–142.
Howarth, C. (2002). So, you’re from Brixton?: The struggle for recognition and esteem in a multicultural community. Ethnicities, 2(2), 237–260.
Howarth, C. (2004). Re-presentation and resistance in the context of school exclusion: Reasons to be critical. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 14, 356–377.
Howarth, C., & Andreouli, E. (2015). ‘Changing the context’: Tackling discrimination at school and in society. International Journal of Educational Development, 41, 184–191.
Jacobs, T. (2019). Teachers’ beliefs about the nature of intelligence affect minority students’ stem grades. Retrieved from https://psmag.com/education/teachers-beliefs-about-the-nature-
Johnston, O., Wildy, H., & Shand, J. (2019). A decade of teacher expectations research 2008–2018: Historical foundations, new developments, and future pathways. American Educational Research Journal, 63(1). Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0004944118824420
Jussim, L., & Harber, K. (2005). Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: Knowns and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies. Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1207/s15327957pspr0902_3
Kharb, P. et al. (2013). The learning styles and the preferred teaching—Learning strategies of first year medical students. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3708205/
Krischler, M., & Pit-ten Cate, I. (2019). Pre- and in-service teachers’ attitudes toward students with learning difficulties and challenging behaviour. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6397877/
Kussrow, P. (2012). The Routine of classroom discrimination. In J. Zajda (Ed.), Learning and teaching (pp. 93–100). Melbourne: James Nicholas Publishers.
Link, B., & Phelan, J. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363–385. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2678626
Madon, S., Lee, J., & Eccles, J. (1997). In search of the powerful self-fulfilling prophecy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(4), 791–809.
Malvik, C. (2020). 4 types of learning styles: how to accommodate a diverse group of students. Retreived from https://www.rasmussen.edu/degrees/education/blog/types-of-learning-styles/
Martschenko, D. (2018). The IQ test wars: Why screening for intelligence is still so controversial. Retrieved from theconversation.com/the-iq-test-wars-why-screening-for-intelligence-is-still-so-contro
Merton, R. (1948). The self-fulfilling prophecy. The Antioch Review, 8, 183–20.
Nehamas, A. (1994). Nietzsche, life as literature. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Nelson, A. (2002). Unequal treatment: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. Journal of the National Medical Association, 94(8), 666–668.
OECD. (2012). Equity and quality in education. Paris: OECD.
Postman, N., & Weingartner, C. S. (1971). Teaching as a subversive activity. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
Ready, D., & Wright, D. L. (2011). Accuracy and inaccuracy in teachers’ perceptions of young children’s cognitive abilities: The role of child background and classroom context. American Educational Research Journal, 48(2), 335–360.
Rezai-Rashti, G., & Solomon, P. (2008). Teacher candidates’ racial identity formation and the possibilities of antiracism. In J. Zajda, K. Biraimah, & W. Gaudelli (Eds.), Education and social inequality in the global culture (pp. 167–187). Dordrecht: Springer.
Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom: Teachers’ expectations and students’ intellectual development. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Sadler-Smith, E. (2001). The relationship between learning style and cognitive style. Personality and Individual Differences, 30(4), 609–616.
Sebora, J. (2008). What type of learner are you? Retrieved from http://www.herald-journal.com/archives/2008/columns/js091508.html
Singhal, P. (2018). Self-fulfilling prophecy’: how students’ confidence affects results. Retrieved from https://www.smh.com.au/education/self-fulfilling-prophecy-how-students-
Slavin, R. (2018). Educational Psychology (12th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Smith, D. (2017). The meritocracy is a smokescreen for inherited privilege. Retrieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/meritocracy-smokescreen-inherited-privilege-a7528666.html
Smith, A., Lee, J., & Eccles, J. (1999). Do self-fulfilling prophecies accumulate, dissipate, or remain stable over time? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(3), 548–565.
St. Louis, M. (2017). How to spot visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic-learning executives. Retrieved from https://www.inc.com/molly-reynolds/how-to-spot-visual-auditory-and-kinesthetic-learni.html
Sternberg, R. (2005). The theory of successful intelligence. Revista Interamericana de Psicología/Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 39(2), 189–202.
Stoffers, M. (2011). Using a multi-sensory teaching approach to impact learning and community in a second-grade classroom. Retrieved from https://rdw.rowan.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1109&context=etd
Tannock, S. (2007). The problem of education-based discrimination. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01425690802326846?src=recsys&journalCode
Teacher expectations of students a self-fulfilling prophecy? (2018). The Progress of Education Reform, 13(6), 1–7. Retrieved from https://www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/01/05/51/10551.pdf
Thompson, J. (2019a). The self-fulfilling prophecy & your students: I knew you could do it. Retrieved from http://teaching.monster.com/benefits/articles/10304-the-self-fulfilling-prophecy-your-students-i-knew-you-could-do-it#comment_form
Thompson, J. (2019b). The first-year teacher’s survival guide: Ready-to-use strategies, tools & activities for meeting the challenges of each school day tools (4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Trent, M., Dooley, D., & Dougé, J. (2019). The impact of racism on child and adolescent health. Retrieved from https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/144/2/e20191765
Van den Bergh, L., Denessen, E., & Hornstra, L. (2010). The implicit prejudiced attitudes of teachers: Relations to teacher expectations and the ethnic achievement gap. American Educational Research Journal, 47(2). Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/0002831209353594
Wehler, M. (2017). Students’ self-fulfilling prophecies: Five ways to break the cycle. Retrieved from https://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-and-learning/five-ways-help-students-break-self-fulfilling-prophecies/
Workman, E. (2012). Teacher expectations of students: A self-fulfilling prophecy? The Progress of Education Reform, 13(6). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED539026
Young, M. (1958). The rise of the meritocracy 1870–2033: An essay on education and equality. London: Thames & Hudson.
Zafar, S. (2021). Discrimination. Retrieved from https://www.cleantechloops.com/how-to-reduce-discrimination-in-education/.
Zajda, J. (Ed.). (2008a). Learning and teaching (2nd ed.). Melbourne: James Nicholas Publishers.
Zajda, J. (2008b). Aptitude. In G. McCulloch & D. Crook (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of education. London: Routledge.
Zajda, J. (2008c). Globalisation, education and social stratification. In J. Zajda, B. Biraimah, & W. Gaudelli (Eds.), Education and social inequality in the global culture (pp. 1–15). Dordrecht: Springer.
Zajda, J. (2009a). Current issues in race, ethnicity and gender in education. In J. Zajda & K. Freeman (Eds.), Race, ethnicity and gender in education: Cross-cultural understandings. Dordrecht: Springer.
Zajda, J. (2009b). Global pedagogies for democracy, tolerance and peace. In H. Daun, Y. Iram, & J. Zajda (Eds.), Global values education: Teaching democracy and peace. Dordrecht: Springer.
Zajda, J. (2009c). Values education and multiculturalism. In J. Zajda & D. Holger (Eds.), Global values education (pp. 13–23). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Netherlands.
Zajda, J. (2009d). Values education in the global culture. In J. Zajda & H. Daun (Eds.), Global values education: Teaching democracy and peace. Dordrecht: Springer.
Zajda, J. (2009e). Globalisation, nation-building, and cultural identity: The role of intercultural dialogue. In J. Zajda, H. Daun, & L. Saha (Eds.), Nation-building, identity and citizenship education: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 15–24). Dordrecht: Springer.
Zajda, J. (2009f). Globalisation and internationalisation: The influence of race, ethnicity and gender on education policy reforms. In J. Zajda & K. Freeman (Eds.), Race, ethnicity and gender in education: Cross-cultural understandings. Dordrecht: Springer.
Zajda, J. (2010a). Globalisation, education and social justice: Introduction. In J. Zajda (Ed.), Globalisation, education and social justice. Dordrecht: Springer.
Zajda, J. (2019a). Research on discrimination and self-fulfilling prophecy in schools globally. Education and Society, 37(1), 59–77.
Zajda, J. (Ed.) (2019b) Globalisation, ideology and politics of education reforms. Springer. http://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319195056
Zajda, J. (Ed.). (2020a). Globalisation, ideology and education reforms: Emerging paradigms. Dordrecht: Springer.
Zajda, J., & Freeman, K. (Eds.). (2009). Race, ethnicity and gender in education: Cross-cultural understandings. Dordrecht: Springer.
Zajda, J., & Majhanovich, S. (Eds.). (2021). Globalisation, cultural identity and nation-building: The changing paradigms. Dordrecht: Springer.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Zajda, J. (2021). Discrimination and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Schools Globally. In: Globalisation and Education Reforms. Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research, vol 25. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71575-5_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71575-5_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-71574-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-71575-5
eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)