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Introduction: Cold War Social Science, Transnational Entanglements

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Cold War Social Science

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Abstract

As a global phenomenon, the Cold War had a profound influence on international relations, society, culture, and the sciences, including the social sciences. Recent historiographical developments suggest the need for close attention to transnational dimensions of Cold War social science. Adopting a transnationalism lens brings into focus movements, exchanges, and interactions that have often received at best marginal consideration. With this in mind, the present volume concentrates on three main lines of investigation: exploring important factors that enabled transnational movements and exchanges in the social sciences during the Cold War; analyzing how transnationalism shaped social science work in various Cold War-inflected contexts; and exploring how transnational across different Cold War settings inspired debate over fundamental questions concerning the nature and meaning of the social sciences. Along the way, this volume urges us to rethink certain fundamental points about how we should understand—and thus study—the Cold War itself.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Daniel J. Kevles, “Cold War and Hot Physics: Science, Security, and the American State, 1945–56,” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 20 (1990): 239–64; Stuart W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993); Edward Jones-Imhotep, “Disciplining Technology: Electronic Reliability, Cold-War Military Culture, and the Topside Ionogram,” History and Technology 17 (2000): 125–75; John Cloud, ed., “Earth Sciences in the Cold War,” Social Studies of Science 33 (2003): 629–819; Jacob Darwin Hamblin, Oceanographers and the Cold War: Disciples of Marine Science (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2005); Joan Lisa Bromberg, “Device Physics vis-à-vis Fundamental Physics in Cold War America: The Case of Quantum Optics,” Isis 97 (2006): 237–59. And more recently: Simone Turchetti and Peder Roberts, eds., The Surveillance Imperative: Geosciences during the Cold War and Beyond (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Naomi Oreskes, Science on a Mission: How Military Funding Shaped What We Do and Don’t Know about the Ocean (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2020).

  2. 2.

    Allan A. Needell, Science, Cold War and the American State: Lloyd V. Berkner and the Balance of Professional Ideas (London: Routledge, 2000); John L. Rudolph, Scientists in the Classroom: The Cold War Reconstruction of American Science Education (New York: Palgrave, 2002); George A. Reisch, How the Cold War Transformed Philosophy of Science: To the Icy Slopes of Logic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Naomi Oreskes and John Krige, eds., Science and Technology in the Global Cold War (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014); Jeroen van Dongen, ed., Cold War Science and the Transatlantic Circulation of Knowledge (Leiden: Brill, 2015); Elena Aronova and Simone Turchetti, eds., Science Studies during the Cold War and Beyond: Paradigms Defected (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016); Audra J. Wolfe, Freedom’s Laboratory: The Cold War Struggle for the Soul of Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2018); George A. Reisch, The Politics of Paradigms: Thomas S. Kuhn, James B. Conant, and the Cold War “Struggle for Men’s Minds” (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2019); Anne-Emanuelle Birn and Raúl Necochea López, eds., Peripheral Nerve: Health and Medicine in Cold War Latin America (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2020).

  3. 3.

    Hunter Heyck and David Kaiser, “New Perspectives on Science and the Cold War: Introduction,” Isis 101 (2010): 362–366, quote at 366.

  4. 4.

    The literature in this area is already large and, judging from recent and current projects, will surely expand rapidly in the years to come. Contributions come from a variety of historical subfields and other specialities (i.e., history of science, sociology of science, philosophy of science, disciplinary history, Cold War history, political history, intellectual history, diplomatic history, history of higher education, and military history). Significant publications include Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995); Ron Robin, The Making of the Cold War Enemy: Culture and Politics in the Military-Intellectual Complex (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001); Slava Gerovitch, From Newspeak to Cyberspeak: A History of Soviet Cybernetics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002); Philip Mirowski, Machine Dreams: Economics Becomes a Cyborg Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); S. M. Amadae, Rationalizing Capitalist Democracy: The Cold War Origins of Rational Choice Liberalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003); Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); Jennifer S. Light, From Warfare to Welfare: Defense Intellectuals and Urban Problems in Cold War America (Baltimore,: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); David C Engerman, Know Your Enemy: The Rise and Fall of America’s Soviet Experts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009); Bernd Greiner, Tim B. Müller, and Claudia Weber, eds., Macht und Geist im Kalten Krieg (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2011); Mark Solovey and Hamilton Cravens, eds., Cold War Social Science: Knowledge Production, Liberal Democracy, and Human Nature (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); Paul Erickson et al., How Reason Almost Lost Its Mind: The Strange Career of Cold War Rationality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013); Mark Solovey, Shaky Foundations: The Politics-Patronage-Social Science Nexus in Cold War America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2013); Joy Rohde, Armed with Expertise: The Militarization of American Social Research During the Cold War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2013); Marga Vicedo, The Nature and Nurture of Love: From Imprinting to Attachment in Cold War America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013); Jamie Cohen-Cole, The Open Mind: Cold War Politics and the Sciences of Human Nature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014); Paul Erickson, The World the Game Theorists Made (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015); S. M. Amadae, Prisoners of Reason: Game Theory and Neoliberal Political Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016); David H. Price, Cold War Anthropology: The CIA, the Pentagon, and the Growth of Dual Use Anthropology (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2016); Begüm Adalet, Hotels and Highways: The Construction of Modernization Theory in Cold War Turkey (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2018); Till Düppe and Ivan Boldyrev, eds., Economic Knowledge in Socialism, 1945–89, Annual Supplement to Volume 51, History of Political Economy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2019); Erika Lorraine Milam, Creatures of Cain: The Hunt for Human Nature in Cold War America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019); Christian Dayé, Experts, Social Scientists, and Techniques of Prognosis in Cold War America (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020). Valuable overviews that engage with key historiographic issues include: Joel Isaac, “The Human Sciences in Cold War America,” The Historical Journal 50 (2007): 725–46; Roger Backhouse and Philippe Fontaine, eds., The History of the Social Sciences since 1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); David C. Engerman, “Social Science in the Cold War,” Isis 101 (2010): 393–400; Joel Isaac, “Introduction: The Human Sciences and Cold War America,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 47 (2011): 225–231; Philip Mirowski, “A History Best Served Cold,” 61–74 in Uncertain Empire: American History and the Idea of the Cold War, ed. Joel Isaac and Duncan Bell (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Mark Solovey, “Cold War Social Science: Specter, Reality, or Useful Concept?,” 1–22 in Solovey and Cravens, Cold War Social Science;; Roger Backhouse and Philippe Fontaine, eds., A Historiography of the Modern Social Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Nils Gilman, “The Cold War as Intellectual Force Field,” Modern Intellectual History 13 (2016): 507–523.

  5. 5.

    Johan Heilbron, Nicolas Guilhot, and Laurent Jeanpierre, “Toward a Transnational History of the Social Sciences,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 44 (2008): 146–160, quote at 147.

  6. 6.

    See Odd Arne Westad, “Rethinking Revolutions: The Cold War in the Third World,” Journal of Peace Research 29 (1992): 455–64; Michael Latham, “The Cold War in the Third World, 1963–1975,” 258–280 in The Cambridge History of the Cold War, ed. Melvin P. Leffler and Odd Arne Westad (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Robert P. Hager, “The Cold War and Third World Revolution,” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 52(2019): 51–57.

  7. 7.

    Theodore M. Porter and Dorothy Ross, “Introduction: Writing the History of Social Sciences,” 1–10 in The Cambridge History of Science. Vol. 7: History of Social Sciences, ed. Theodore M. Porter and Dorothy Ross (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

  8. 8.

    Christian Fleck, “Skizze einer Methodologie der Geschichte der Soziologie,” 34–111 in Soziologiegeschichte: Wege und Ziele, ed. Christian Dayé and Stephan Moebius (Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2015); Christian Fleck and Christian Dayé, “Methodology of the History of the Social and Behavioral Sciences,” 319–325 in The International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences, ed. James D Wright, 2nd ed., vol. 15 (Oxford: Elsevier, 2015).

  9. 9.

    Ivan Boldyrev and Olessia Kirtchik, “On (Im)Permeabilities: Social and Human Sciences on Both Sides of the ‘Iron Curtain,’” History of the Human Sciences 29 (2016): 3–12, quote on 4.

  10. 10.

    John Krige and Jessica Wang, “Nation, Knowledge, and Imagined Futures: Science, Technology, and Nation-Building, Post-1945,” History and Technology 31 (2015): 171–179, quote on 171.

  11. 11.

    There is a large historical literature on modernization, much of it focused on initiatives from the US side. A small selection of works from the past two decades includes Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and “Nation Building” in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill, London: The University of North Carolina Press, 2000); David C. Engerman et al., eds., Staging Growth: Modernization, Development and the Global Cold War (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003); Gilman, Mandarins of the Future. Modernization Theory in Cold War America; Bradley R. Simpson, Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.-Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2008); David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton, Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2010); Hemant Shah, The Production of Modernization: Daniel Lerner, Mass Media, and The Passing of Traditional Society. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011); Adalet, Hotels and Highways.

  12. 12.

    On the importance of recognizing that a major chunk of Cold War history lies in the Global South, see Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

  13. 13.

    Cohen-Cole, The Open Mind.

  14. 14.

    Mat Savelli and Sarah Marks, eds., Psychiatry in Communist Europe (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).

  15. 15.

    The observations here aren’t meant to diminish the importance of other factors that facilitated transnational exchanges, including the migration of scholars under particular historical conditions, in which push factors prompted individuals to leave behind troubling conditions in their own countries, such as wars, political persecution, and lack of educational or employment opportunities, while pull factors enticed individuals to move in the pursuit of such things as better living conditions and greater scholarly opportunities. For studies on the effects of forced migration immediately preceeding the era of our concern, see e.g. Christian Fleck, A Transatlantic History of the Social Sciences: Robber Barons, the Third Reich and the Invention of Empirical Social Research, trans. Hella Beister (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2011); Thomas Wheatland, The Frankfurt School in Exile (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); Andreas Hess, The Political Theory of Judith N. Shklar: Exile from Exile (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); George Steinmetz, “Ideas in Exile: Refugees from Nazi Germany and the Failure to Transplant Historical Sociology into the United States,” International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 23, no. 1 (2010): 1–27.

  16. 16.

    See Jennifer Platt, A Brief History of the ISA (Québec: The International Sociological Association, 1998); Thibaud Boncourt, A History of the International Political Science Association 1949–2009 (Montreal: The International Political Science Association, 2009).

  17. 17.

    Philip Mirowski and Dieter Plehwe, The Road from Mont Pèlerin: The Making of the Neoliberal Thought Collective (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009); Angus Burgin, The Great Persuasion: Reinventing Free Markets Since the Depression, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015).

  18. 18.

    Giles Scott-Smith, The Politics of Apolitical Culture: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Political Economy of American Hegemony 1945–1955 (London: Routledge, 2001).

  19. 19.

    Donald Fisher, Fundamental Development of the Social Sciences: Rockefeller Philanthropy and the United States Social Science Research Council (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993); Kenton W Worcester, Social Science Research Council, 1923–1998 (New York: Social Science Research Council, 2001); Nicolas Guilhot, ed., The Invention of International Relations Theory: Realism, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the 1954 Conference on Theory (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011); Emily Hauptmann, “The Ford Foundation and the Rise of Behavioralism in Political Science,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 48, no. 2 (2012): 154–173; Inderjeet Parmar, Foundations of the American Century: The Ford, Carnegie, and Rockefeller Foundations in the Rise of American Power (Columbia University Press, 2012); Ioana Popa, “International Construction of Area Studies in France during the Cold War: Insights from the École Pratique Des Hautes Études 6th Section,” History of the Human Sciences 29 (2016): 125–150.

  20. 20.

    Joy Rohde, “The Last Stand of the Psychocultural Cold Warriors: Military Contract Research in Vietnam,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 47 (2011): 232–250.

  21. 21.

    John Krige, “Introduction: Writing the Transnational History of Science and Technology,” 1–31 in How Knowledge Moves: Writing the Transnational History of Science and Technology, ed. John Krige (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019), quote at 6.

  22. 22.

    Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion: Communication Research & Psychological Warfare 1945–1960 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Michael A. Bernstein and Allen Hunter, eds., “The Cold War and Expert Knowledge: New Essays on the History of the National Security State,” Radical History Review 63 (1995): 1–139; Noam Chomsky et al., The Cold War & the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York: The New Press, 1997); Christopher Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences During the Cold War (New York: The New Press, 1998). Latham, Modernization as Ideology; Robin, Making of the Cold War Enemy; Erickson et al., How Reason Almost Lost Its Mind. Also see these historiographic pieces on Cold War science: Stuart W. Leslie, “Science and Politics in Cold War America,” 199–233 in The Politics of Western Science, 1640–1990, ed. Margaret C. Jacob (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1994); David Hounshell, “The Cold War, RAND, and the Generation of Knowledge, 1946–1962,” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 27 (1997): 237–67; Naomi Oreskes, “Introduction,” 1–9 in Science and Technology in the Global Cold War, ed. Naomi Oreskes and John Krige, (Cambridge, MIT Press, 2014).

  23. 23.

    Isaac, “The Human Sciences in Cold War America,” 739.

  24. 24.

    Isaac, “The Human Sciences in Cold War America”; Engerman, “Social Science in the Cold War”; Solovey, “Cold War Social Science: Specter, Reality, or Useful Concept?”

  25. 25.

    Gilman, “The Cold War as Intellectual Force Field,” quotes about first-, second-, and third-order CWSS on 514, counter-CWSS on 521; On the notion of anti-CWSS, see Solovey, “Cold War Social Science,” 18–19.

  26. 26.

    Irving Louis Horowitz, ed., The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot: Studies in the Relationship between Social Science and Practical Politics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967); Ellen Herman, “Project Camelot and the Career of Cold War Psychology,” 39–56 in University and Empire, ed. Christopher Simpson; Mark Solovey, “Project Camelot and the 1960s Epistemological Revolution: Rethinking the Politics-Patronage-Social Science Nexus,” Social Studies of Science 31 (2001): 171–206; Juan José Navarro, “Cold War in Latin America: The Camelot Project (1964–1965) and the Political and Academic Reactions of the Chilean Left,” Comparative Sociology 10 (2011): 807–25; Rohde, Armed with Expertise, ch. 3.

  27. 27.

    Thibaud Boncourt, “The Transnational Circulation of Scientific Ideas: Importing Behavioralism in European Political Science (1950–1970),” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 51 (2015): 195–215; Thibaud Boncourt, “The Struggles for European Science. A Comparative Perspective on the History of European Social Science Associations,” Serendipities 2 (2017): 10–32.

  28. 28.

    Solovey, “Cold War Social Science,” 2.

  29. 29.

    Heilbron, Guilhot, and Jeanpierre, “Toward a Transnational History of the Social Sciences,” 155.

  30. 30.

    A few recent examples: Cherry Schrecker, ed., Transatlantic Voyages and Sociology: The Migration and Development of Ideas (London, Routledge, 2010); Fleck, A Transatlantic History of the Social Sciences; Frank Biess and Daniel M. Gross, eds., Science and Emotions after 1945: A Transatlantic Perspective (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014); Johan Heilbron, Gustavo Sorá, and Thibaud Boncourt, eds., The Social and Human Sciences in Global Power Relations (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).

  31. 31.

    Joel Isaac and Duncan Bell, “Introduction,” 3–16 in Uncertain Empire: American History and the Idea of the Cold War, ed. Joel Isaac and Duncan Bell (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), quote at 4.

  32. 32.

    Reisch, How the Cold War Transformed Philosophy of Science; Elena Aronova, “The Politics and Contexts of Soviet Science Studies (Naukovedenie): Soviet Philosophy of Science at the Crossroads,” Studies in East European Thought 63 (2011): 175–202; Aronova and Turchetti, Science Studies during the Cold War and Beyond; Reisch, The Politics of Paradigms.

  33. 33.

    Solovey, “Project Camelot and the 1960s Epistemological Revolution”; George Steinmetz, ed., The Politics of Method in the Human Sciences: Positivism and Its Epistemological Others (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005); Rohde, Armed with Expertise; Christian Dayé, “‘A Fiction of Long Standing’: Techniques of Prospection and the Role of Positivism in US Cold War Social Science, 1950–65,” History of the Human Sciences 29 (2016): 35–58; Eglė Rindzevičiūtė, The Power of Systems: How Policy Sciences Opened Up the Cold War World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2016); Jenny Andersson, The Future of the World: Futurology, Futurists, and the Struggle for the Post Cold War Imagination (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018).

  34. 34.

    See Solovey, Shaky Foundations; Joel Isaac, Working Knowledge: Making the Human Sciences from Parsons to Kuhn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012); Thomas Medvetz, Think Tanks in America (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2012).

  35. 35.

    Walt Whitman Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960).

  36. 36.

    Adela Hîncu, “Introduction: ‘Peripheral Observations’ and Their Observers,” 1–27 in Social Sciences in the Other Europe since 1945, ed. Adela Hîncu and Victor Karady (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2018), 17.

  37. 37.

    See Thomas Brisson, “Western and Non-Western Views of the Social and Behavioral Sciences: De-Westernizing the Social and Behavioral Sciences,” 541–550 in International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2nd Edition, vol. 25, ed. James D Wright (Oxford: Elsevier, 2015); recent manifestations of this proposal include Walter D. Mignolo, “Spirit out of Bounds Returns to the East: The Closing of the Social Sciences and the Opening of Independent Thoughts,” Current Sociology 62 (2014), 584–602; Raewyn Connell, “Decolonizing Sociology,” Contemporary Sociology 47 (2018): 399–407.

  38. 38.

    See Christian Dayé, “A Systematic View on the Use of History for Current Debates in Sociology, and on the Potential and Problems of a Historical Epistemology of Sociology,” The American Sociologist 49 (2018): 520–47; George Steinmetz, “How and Why Do We Write the History of the Social Sciences?,” The Institute Letter, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton (Spring 2018): 12–13.

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  1. Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Mark Solovey

  2. Science, Technology and Society Unit, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria

    Christian Dayé

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    Mark Solovey

  2. Science, Technology and Society Unit, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria

    Christian Dayé

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Solovey, M., Dayé, C. (2021). Introduction: Cold War Social Science, Transnational Entanglements. In: Solovey, M., Dayé, C. (eds) Cold War Social Science. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70246-5_1

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