Abstract
“One of the lead actors in the drama of globalisation in the twentieth century is the immigrant labourer” (Mani 2007, 50), particularly the Turkish guest worker in Germany. As this chapter will outline, this drama and the Turkish-German theatre practitioner long seemed notably absent from the actual theatrical spaces of the Federal Republic, however. This introductory chapter outlines a history of Turkish and Turkish-German theatrical production, and, drawing on work by theorists in both Theatre/Performance Studies and German Studies, outlines a new theoretical framework for exploring the extent to which these dramatic scripts provide starting points for broader rescriptings of the German theatrical establishment and its associated symbolic realm.
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Notes
- 1.
The number of papers which focused on or mentioned German-language theatre, and stagings of Elfriede Jelinek’s Die Schutzbefohlenen (Charges [The Supplicants]) in particular, at the 2018 IFTR conference on Theatre and Migration in Belgrade in July 2018 was striking.
- 2.
Es “geht […] um die Neuerzählung der Migrationsgeschichte der sogenannten Gastarbeiter […] eigentlich Pioniere einer Transnationalisierung […] Zweitens geht es um die Nachfolgegenerationen der Gastarbeiter, die nicht über die gleichen Migrationserfahrungen verfügen wie ihre Eltern oder Großeltern.”.
- 3.
“Label, unter der von den Theatermacher_innen ‘of Color’ politisch Theater gemacht wird”; “Politisch Theater machen unter postmigrantischen Konditionen. Das bedeutet von den Rändern, von der Peripherie aus Geschichten zu erzählen und trotzdem das Zentrum zu kennen.”
- 4.
“Auf die Möglichkeit der Anwendung dieses Begriffs kam ich in diesen Jahren erstmals im Zusammenhang mit angelsächsischer Literaturforschung, als ich ein Interview las, indem in einem Seminar der Vergleichenden Literaturwissenschaft die Frage erörtert wurde, ob die Literatur von Zaimoǧlu im Vergleich zu Özdamar und anderen der ersten Generation, als Literatur ‘nach der Migration’ aufgefasst werden könnte. Mit dieser Frage des Schreibens, des Erzählens ‘nach der Migration’ legte sich in meinem Selbst- und Kunstverständnis ein entscheidender Hebel um.” The original German uses the imagery of a lever shifting, highlighting more strongly the concept as tool for changing understandings and gaining leverage. Kevin Robins and Asu Aksoy also highlight both Langhoff and Özdamar as artists whose work is exemplary of the “postmigrant perspective” on transnationalism and the “enlargement of social and cultural meaning in the European context” (158), which they argue is also present in or characteristic of the reflections of their interview partners and focus groups: people of Turkish origin living in London and Berlin who are not artists by profession (see Robins and Aksoy 2016, 163–70).
- 5.
This is particularly the case with the semi-autobiographical nove ls The Bridge of the Golden Horn (2007; Die Brücke vom Goldenen Horn 1998) and Strange Stars Stare at the Earth (Seltsame Sterne starren zur Erde 2003), in which the protagonist “Sevgi” trains as an actress and works at the Volksbühne. For an analysis of the semi-autobiographical nature of these works, see, for example, Boa (2006); Bradley (2007).
- 6.
This point is also made by Karin Lornsen amongst others (2009, 205). I will discuss aspects of this secondary literature in more detail in the later chapters “Scripts of Migration: Emine Sevgi Özdamar’s Early Plays (1982–2000)” and “Celebrating the New “Normal”? Emine Sevgi Özdamar’s Perikızı and the Festival Context”, which focus on Özdamar.
- 7.
Labour migration generally occurred from more rural areas of Turkey, with families joining workers several years later as a result of family reunification measures. However, following the worsening political situation in Turkey in the 1970s and the military putsch in 1980, a number of Turkish intellectuals, artists, activists, and members of persecuted minorities also came to Germany seeking exile. Migration to and from Turkey and Germany has also continued throughout this period, making it more sensible to speak of Turkish migrations to Germany in the plural.
- 8.
A form of jus soli was only introduced in the FRG in 2000. As a result, there still exists a significant disjunction between birth and socialisation in Germany, and citizenship of the country.
- 9.
Translation here by Sigerson and Chambless.
- 10.
“Wer ist wir?”; “die interkulturelle Gesellschaft”.
- 11.
“Mit diesem Gesetz […] werden erstmals Maßnahmen zur Integration der auf Dauer rechtmäßig in Deutschland lebenden Zuwanderer gesetzlich verankert.”
- 12.
This will be discussed in more detail in the later chapter “Performing Institutional Change: New Faces, Shadow Voices (2008)”.
- 13.
Other chapters focus on laying the theoretical and methodological groundwork of the approach, outlining the history of theatrical practice in Turkey and on Turkish-Germany comedic performance (stand-up and cabaret). Boran’s PhD was never published but was made available freely online, and so has been drawn on by most scholars engaging with Turkish-German theatre. This history as per Boran is also outlined in Nobrega (2014), Sharifi (2017), Gezen (2018), for example. While there are necessarily limitations in the analytical complexity and scope of the chapter on Turkish-German theatre history, it remains a crucial source and has laid much factual groundwork.
- 14.
“Türkische Theatergruppe”.
- 15.
East Germany is not addressed here as the East German state did not engage in large-scale recruitment from Turkey, although, as the outline of Özdamar’s theatrical biography which follows shortly will show, East German theatre also has a role to play here.
- 16.
Boran names the Tiyatrom theatre in Berlin as the main exception here.
- 17.
While literary products such as books, magazines and online writings are produced in particular contexts and systems, their multiple circulations mean that as both artefact and artwork they can be considered to have independent afterlives.
- 18.
Similarly, Tom Cheesman and B. Venkat Mani consider the literary texts they deal with, which in each case include literary works by Özdamar and Zaimoglu, to be “Turkish-German” literature in the sense of literature whose production, themes or reception have been marked by the specific historical situation of Turks in the FRG (cf. Cheesman 2007, 3). This focus does mean that this study is unable to engage systematically with the work of other migrantized or racialized playwrights and practitioners in Germany, although the new postmigrant theatre, while initiating from a network consisting of practitioners often of Turkish origin, aims to a large degree to refuse essentialist divisions. However, here I would direct readers to excellent new work coming from Jamele Watkins, Priscilla Layne and Damani Partridge, which addresses contemporary Black performance in Germany, including within the postmigrant theatre movement, as well as to Jonas Tinius’ extensive recent work on Theater an der Ruhr.
- 19.
Tudor uses the term “migratisation” rather than “migrantization”, to describe “(the ascription of migration) as performative practice that repeatedly re-stages a sending-off to an elsewhere and works in close interaction with racialisation” (2018, 1057). I use the spelling “migrantization” here as this appears to be the more frequent usage in the German and English-language contexts (see, for example, E. Yildiz 2014, 22), but highlight Tudor’s discussion of the process and its relation to racialization as particularly helpful.
- 20.
Erol Yildiz also argues for the potential of “postmigration” as term that can work against such othering: “The “postmigrant” thus understands itself as a polemical term positioned against the “migrantization” and marginalization of people who see themselves as an integral component of society, against a public discourse which treats migration histories as specific historical exceptions and which differentiates between native normality and problems which have migrated in” (“Das ‘Postmigrantische’ versteht sich dann als ein Kampfbegriff gegen ‘Migrantisierung’ und Marginalisierung von Menschen, die sich als integraler Bestandteil der Gesellschaft sehen, gegen einen öffentlichen Diskurs, der Migrationsgeschichten weiterhin als spezifische historische Ausnahmeerscheinungen behandelt und in dem zwischen einheimischer Normalität und eingewanderten Problemen unterschieden wird.” E. Yildiz 2014, 22).
- 21.
Although Özdamar first came to Germany as a Gastarbeiterin, her reasons for doing so were slightly different from the usually cited economic push-and-pull factors. She and her mother were not getting on well and as a result of the bilateral recruitment agreements “the door to Germany was suddenly open” ([d]ie Tür nach Deutschland war plötzlich offen; Özdamar, quoted in von Saalfeld 1998, 165).
- 22.
As Boran highlights, this encounter was rewritten in fictive form in Özdamar’s 1998 novel Die Brücke vom Goldenen Horn (2004, 112–14). For more on Öngören, see Stenzaly (1984, 133), Sappelt, (2000, 67) and Gezen (2018). Öngören would later ground the influential Birlik Tiyatrosu [‘Kollektiv-Theater’] in Turkey, a project he continued in political exile in the 1980s in West Berlin and then Amsterdam. As Boran notes, Öngören directed several of his own plays in West Berlin, including one in a German translation during this period (2004, 113). For Boran, “the example of Öngören additionally highlights […] how difficult it was at the start of the 1980s to get a foot in the door of the German theatre scene as a Turkish theatre practitioner – even for someone with a reputation like Öngören’s” (“das Beispiel Öngörens aber zudem verdeutlicht […] wie schwierig es zu Beginn der achtziger Jahre war als türkischer Theatermacher – selbst mit einem Renommee wie dem Öngörens – in der deutschen Theaterszene Fuß zu fassen”: 114).
- 23.
Language and Culture Center/Lisan ve Kültür Merkezi T.C., Istanbul, directed by Beklan Algan from 1966 <https://www.lcc.com.tr/>. Algan also worked at the Schaubühne in West Berlin in the early 1980s. Gezen also locates this as the LCC.
- 24.
During that time, Özdamar was registered as a postgraduate student studying theatre in Paris.
- 25.
See also the detailed overview of Özdamar’s theatrical training and career provided by Boran (2004, 136–39). According to Boran, Özdamar was also briefly involved in assisting Beklan Algan with the Türkische Ensemble der Schaubühne Berlin (2004, 105). Boran highlights many practitioners’ view that “Turkish theatre could have had the unique opportunity back then to establish itself in the German theatrical landscape”, but that in practice the ensemble’s work was characterized by “quite bloody battles” between those involved: (“Das türkische Theater […] hätte damals die einmalige Gelegenheit gehabt, sich in der deutschen Theaterlandschaft zu etablieren”; “ganz blutige Kämpfe”; 2004, 103–04).
- 26.
At Bochum, she is credited as directorial/dramaturgical assistant on productions such as Marie.Woyzeck (15/11/1980), for example. As documented in the 1986 volume edited by Beil et al. which documented the work of the Bochumer Ensemble, she also appeared playing a Turkish cleaning woman in Lieber Georg (2/2/1980; 520), shared the role of Lydia Antonowa with Gabriele Gysi in Karge and Langhoff’s production of Brecht’s The Mother (Die Mutter 2/10/1983; 594), and played a “Turkish singer” in Heiner Müller’s own production of The Task (Der Auftrag 13/2/1982; 563). In 1984, Özdamar left Bochum but continued her work as an actress in theatrical productions in Germany and France (Lennartz 2000, 29). She is also known as “the Mother of all film Turks” for her roles in films such as Hark Bohm’s Yasemin (1988) and Doris Dörrie’s Happy Birthday, Turk (Happy Birthday, Türke 1992) (die Mutter aller Filmtürken; Laudenbach 2002).
- 27.
- 28.
Loren Kruger identifies Özdamar as a playwright who has “begun to explore the possibilities of syncretic theatre in Germany” (2004, 327–28).
- 29.
- 30.
An author biography for Senkel is provided in Schütt (2011, 85).
- 31.
“Ich bin der Extremist, bin fur die Sprache und Ideen zuständig. Ich schlüpfe in die Rollen […] Meine Aufgabe[n] sind Gefühle und Affekte. Günther [sic] ist der Techniker, der sich überlegt: Die Affekte, Ideen und die Sprache – geht das überhaupt auf?! Funktioniert die Geschichte?!”
- 32.
- 33.
Analogous to Derek Paget’s understanding of documentary theatre as a “broken tradition” (2009).
- 34.
A range of both Zaimoglu/Senkel and Özdamar’s theatrical work has begun to attract critical attention from scholars. However, this has thus far resulted in several separate articles rather than a broader overview and interest has mainly stemmed from scholars familiar with their prose writing. With the exception of Zaimoglu/Senkel’s Black Virgins , which has been the focus of some performance analysis, analysis of their plays in production, or as theatrical events, is largely absent. Those analyses of Özdamar’s theatrical work which do exist, for example, tend to be brief, embedded in a wider discussion of her other work or of a broader concept, and based primarily on a reading of the dramatic text, rather than the corresponding performance texts.
- 35.
Nora Haakh also has a book forthcoming on postmigrant theatre which readers can look forward to.
- 36.
In this study, Gezen uses an engagement with Özdamar’s theatrical background to read her literary work but not her theatre plays.
- 37.
Detailed research had previously been done on events such as the annual Karneval der Kulturen in Berlin, for example (see Sieg 2008, 321–22).
- 38.
“Theater, Literatur, Musik: Gastarbeiterkultur – Kultur, die keiner haben will.”
- 39.
Thus, Hannah Voss, whose 2014 book explores “the reflection of ethnic identity(ascriptions) in contemporary German theatre” explicitly concentrates “solely on the aesthetic product, that is the theatre production”, arguing that this focus is due “amongst other things, due to material available to me” (“allein auf das ästhetische Produkt, sprich auf die Theateraufführung”; dies “ist under anderem auch dem mir vorliegenden Material geschuldet”; 2014, 22).
- 40.
This is important from a methodological perspective: such triangulated work also acknowledges that the audiovisual recordings can be of variable quality and show only one instance of the play in production. This is partly because the audiovisual recordings accessed were mainly for the theatres’ or directors’ own internal uses and records. While the lighting, blocking, costume, sound and scenery—i.e. the components which make-up the mise-en-scène—are more “constant” elements of a production and are therefore relatively accessible for analysis (Balme 2008, 133–34; Pavis 1998, 363–68), as many theatre scholars have highlighted, each theatrical happening is unique: actors play slightly differently on different nights, a production may develop or stagnate over time, and the audience and experiences they bring with them into the theatre may change. The methodological approach taken here is also indebted to the work of Laura Bradley (2006).
- 41.
Knowles draws here on Clifford Geertz (1973, 10–30). This involves “(re)constructing the performance, translating it into the frame of another discourse and rendering it legible (‘readable’) and mobile – allowing it to travel beyond its originary context as a ‘theoretical object’” (de Marinis 1993, 48; quoted in Knowles 2004, 12, emphasis in orig.).
- 42.
- 43.
The archives of Schauspiel Frankfurt, for example, where the first play this book examined premiered, are held not by the theatre but by the Archiv zu den Städtischen Bühnen Frankfurt at the Universitätsbibliothek Johann C. Senckenberg, part of the Goethe Universität, Frankfurt am Main University. Similarly, the archives of Schauspiel Hannover were to be found in the associated Theatermuseum next door.
- 44.
As a result, the interview questions were production-specific and while I asked about the commission, inspiration, rehearsals, performance and reception of the plays in each case, each interviewee was encouraged to lead the discussion into the areas they found most important.
- 45.
My interview with dramaturge Ingo Waszerka, for example, led me to search for the photographs of the premiere of Emine Sevgi Özdamar’s first play taken by Abisag Tüllmann. These images are discussed in Stewart (2013). My interview with Neco Çelik also led to his wife, actress and businesswoman Nermin Çelik, kindly giving me a copy of the audio–video recording of the premiere production of Zaimoglu/Senkel’s Black Virgins and other materials relating to the production, in which she originally played one of the characters.
- 46.
“Die kulturpolitischen Entwicklungen, die die Organisation wie die Institution Theater betreffen, nachhaltige nachhaltige Konsequenzen für die ästhetische Praxis haben”.
- 47.
Ann-Christine Simke’s 2017 thesis also develops this idea, “expanding my field of inquiry from the performance event itself to the institution as an artistic, political and social framework and its many ways of communicating its specific profile to audiences”. As will be seen in the following section such “dramaturgies” in an extended sense, whether from the kind of state and regional cultural planning and policy touched on earlier in this introduction, or from within individual theatrical institutions can also be seen as scripts which function “as ‘strategy generating principles’, to use a term by Bourdieu, principles that accompany people’s actions within given situations, but don’t determine these actions completely” (Van der Berg 2008, 5).
- 48.
- 49.
For a detailed engagement with Turkish-German cinema through a Deleuzean lens, see Naiboglu (2018).
- 50.
Ela Gezen’s recent work also responds to Adelson’s work which “directs our attention to how in these texts German worlds are ‘configured in new ways’” (Adelson 13; quoted in Gezen 2018, 9), by drawing our attention to the ways in which “Turkish writers’ engagement with Brecht – both in their own written works and on stages from Istanbul and Ankara to East Berlin and Erlangen – prompted a range of such reconfigurations” (Gezen 2018, 9).
- 51.
Zaimoglu/Senkel’s Black Virgins is also discussed in Breger (2012, 231–38).
- 52.
The phrasing here bears similarities to Richard Schechner’s discussion of the script in opposition to the drama, where the script emerges as “something that pre-exists any given enactment, which persists from enactment to enactment” (2003, 68). However, for Schechner, “the script is the domain of the teacher, guru, master”, while for Butler it lies more firmly outwith the individual agent. Given the role of the postdramatic in the German theatrical context, I find the distinctions Schechner sets up here less useful when addressing this context and so will not be using the term script in his sense here. For a more detailed general critique of Schechner’s terminology here, see Shephard (2016, 27). In their recent book on theatre at the HAU, Ulrike Garde and Meg Mumford also make brief reference to “cognitive scripts”, which are “confused” by theatrical productions such as Ayşe Polat’s contribution to X-Wohnungen (2004) in order to produce a dissonance that prompts reflection (2016, 132–33). These are scripts of “temporally-ordered schema” which describe “knowledge of stereotypical goal-oriented event sequences” though (Emmott and Alexander 2015, quoted in Garde and Megson 2016, 133) and represent an approach rooted in psychology.
- 53.
McIvor also takes up Knowles’ vocabulary of the “script” in relation to intercultural policy in the Northern Irish context (2019a, 359).
- 54.
Similarly, Laura Cull’s extensive work on Deleuze and performance suggests “performance’s production of images, texts, events, and movements involves entering into a becoming that changes both the work and world as representation” (Cull 2013, 5). For a detailed discussion which squares the performativity and Deleuze circle, see Fancy (2014). Sharifi also suggests the potential of using Deleuze in exploring migration and theatre in contemporary Germany (2017, 336) but does not pursue this in her examples.
- 55.
This is a cultural model with roots in the thinking of philosophers such as Herder (cf. Kömürcü Nobrega 2011, 101–02).
- 56.
“reduziert die Werke in ethnozentristischer Weise auf einen kulturvermittelnden Nutzwert”. Thus, Michael Hofmann, who continues in this tradition, writes “intercultural literary studies should be understood as an opportunity for society to reflect on the problems of, and chances offered by, intercultural constellations, and to grasp the diversity of cultures as profit” (2006, 238).
- 57.
As a PhD student, I was also able to attend some of the platform’s events and meetings in 2012 while on a DAAD-funded research stay in Germany which Christel Weiler from the centre kindly supported. Sharifi also discusses intercultural theatre approaches developed in performance studies critically (2017, 373).
- 58.
Here, Çağlar references an unpublished talk by Kira Kosnick from 2013.
- 59.
Question raised by audience member at the event “10 Jahre postmigrantisches Theater—Narrative des postmigrantischen Theaters: Repräsentation, Erinnerungsarbeit und Geschichtsschreibung,” curated by Onur Suzan Kömürcü Nobrega, Ballhaus Naunynstraße, Berlin, 24 May 2016.
- 60.
This methodological nationalism is, according to Çağlar, further enforced by the temporality she sees as inscribed in the term: “The prefix ‘post’ here clearly indicates that this is a category of temporal location” (2016, 7), creating a “post migrant chronotope […] where a particular temporal frame prepositions the migrants and links them to a predefined space” and “an inscribed and path dependent past” (Çağlar 2016, 8).
- 61.
Cf. Discussions at “10 Jahre postmigrantisches Theater”.
- 62.
For a more detailed history of the term’s development in its moves back and forth between theatrical practice, theatrical analysis and sociological theory, see Stewart (2017).
- 63.
“Postmigrantisch heißt für uns, dass wir die bisherige Produktion und Rezeption von Geschichten über Migration und über Migranten kritisch befragen und neu anschauen, neu produzieren und neu zur Rezeption einladen.”
- 64.
While Mandel’s anthropological accounts are focused more on social than on artistic practices, she highlights that “[p]rocesses of mimetism [sic] are found in the variety of assertions of visibility” created by work such as Zaimoglu and Özdamar’s literary writing (2008, 4; see also 86). I bring in Chow here as Chow’s work takes us beyond a model applicable only to the question of national identity into a multiple set of models used to shore up structures of inclusion and exclusion in various power relations. This seems particularly important in a globalising context where the national is still significant, as exemplified by the issues still surrounding citizenship law in Germany, but is both modified and compromised by the globalised economic sphere and the transnational legal and socio-economic realm of the EU.
- 65.
As my focus is on the plays in production, in Özdamar’s case this means that I omit an examination of her unperformed dramatic texts , Hamlet Ahmet, Karriere einer Putzfrau – Erinnerungen an Deutschland an d Der Hof im Spiegel as well as her children’s play, Noahi (written 2001; performed 2003, Theaterhaus Frankfurt). Instead, I focus on those of her plays designed for the adult stage and successful in being performed. Zaimoglu/Senkel are currently the authors of sixteen dramatic texts. I have chosen to omit a closer examination of those productions in which Zaimoglu’s sole authored prose work is adapted for the stage, and of Zaimoglu/Senkel’s three early plays Casino Leger (2003), Ja. Tu es. Jetzt (2003) a nd Halb So Wild (2004). The duo’s numerous other rewrites Lulu Live (2005), Romeo und Julia (2006), Max und Moritz (2007), Molière: Eine Passion (2007), Nathan Messias (2009), Hamlet (2010) and Julius Caeser (2011) are not examined in detail but will be brought into the chapter on Zaimoglu/Senkel’s Othello as points of comparison. Since I began this research, Zaimoglu/Senkel have also written a good number of newer plays; these will be discussed briefly in the conclusion.
- 66.
This took place at a conference titled Intersections: Cross-Cultural Theater in Germany and the U.S. with Emine Sevgi Özdamar at the University of Pennsylvania (22–24/03/2014).
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Stewart, L. (2021). Introduction: Turkish-German Scripts of Postmigration. In: Performing New German Realities. Contemporary Performance InterActions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69848-5_2
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