Abstract
The decreased rate of expansion of the Ottoman Empire on the eve of the Modern Era was also reflected in the internal degradation of the Empire’s societal and political systems and coincided with the advancement of Christian states (in societal, political, and economic terms). The Ottoman withdrawal from the Pannonian Basin and parts of Dalmatia was one of the most important events for Croatia during this period, as was the stabilisation of a new border after a series of peace treaties between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Monarchy and the Republic of Venice in the eighteenth century. In the deserted and economically destroyed borderland areas, a policy of settlement and economic valorisation was implemented, largely in Slavonia, the Dalmatian Hinterland, and within the new administrative entity along the border: the Military Frontier. Along with a policy of planned settlement in Slavonia, there were also policies intended to stabilise settlement patterns and the division of land in both Slavonia and the Dalmatian Hinterland. This considerably changed the cultural landscape and enabled an agricultural revolution in commercial grain cultivation. Newly acquired Pannonian territories and economic surpluses created the basis for a new combined transportation axis from Pannonia to the northern Adriatic. This was one of the leading international trade and transport routes during the eighteenth century, until the laying of the first railway. It had great significance for the area of Croatia, but also for neighbouring countries—Bosnia and Herzegovina (under the Ottoman rule) and Serbia—which had previously been linked to international trade by southern Adriatic harbours (Dubrovnik and Split).
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Notes
- 1.
Also called the Thirteen Years’ War or Fifteen Years’ War, depending on if one reckons the Turkish campaign to capture Bihać to be part of the war or not.
- 2.
This chaotic situation is best shown by the fact that the position of grand vizier (the right hand of the sultan) was occupied by 44 different people over a period of 52 years (1604–1656) (Matuz 1992).
- 3.
Following the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), the number of Janissaries grew from 16,000 to 37,000 (1607), while the number of sipahi—mounted soldiers who financed themselves—dropped from around 87,000 to 49,000 (1609); eventually, their number would drop to a mere 8,000 (1630).
- 4.
Mercenaries of peasant background in the Ottoman Empire.
- 5.
The Eyalet of Bosnia had, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, already accepted the unwritten rule that sons of male members of prominent sipahi families inherited land, which was in opposition to the law.
- 6.
This special status was detailed in the Statuta Valachorum of 1630.
- 7.
Venetian cartographers (Paolo Forlani, Stefano Scolari) had already applied the term Morlach in the Velebit Littoral in the second half of the sixteenth century.
- 8.
It is worth mentioning that the term “Vlach” was not used consistently in censuses. Although the term was mostly used to describe the Orthodox population, it was sometimes also used to describe ethnic affiliation (as we can see with the term “Catholic-Vlach” that was most often used to describe Bunjevci).
- 9.
The historical Croatian term for frontier is krajina. Today, the term krajina as a toponym is also used as a regional concept. The aforementioned frontiers—i.e. krajinas formed during the era of the Military Frontier along the Habsburg and Venetian border with the Ottoman Empire—have persisted as regions to present day in parts of the Dalmatian Hinterland.
- 10.
“Lower” refers to the area of Slavonia in which the Ottoman rule was suppressed.
- 11.
A Croatian ethnic group who were settled into Slavonia, Srijem, Baranja, and Bačka, in the border area between contemporary Croatia, Hungary, and Serbia. Most Šokci in Croatia ended up in eastern Slavonia and western Srijem.
- 12.
Via Carolina Augusta was named after Emperor Karl VI.
- 13.
Via Josephina was named after Emperor Josef II.
- 14.
Via Theresiana was named after Maria Theresia.
- 15.
Via Louisiana (also Via Ludovicea) was named for Maria Luisa, daughter of Emperor Franz Josef I.
- 16.
This process sped up after the Via Louisiana was built, as it was the best mountain road of the era.
- 17.
There were 910,800 ha of forests and pastures, 150,000 ha of orchards and vineyards, and only 50,000 ha of grasslands.
- 18.
The largest famines were documented in the following years: 1715–16; 1731; 1733; 1738; 1740; 1747; 1752; 1757; 1764; 1772–1775; 1777; 1779.–80; 1781–1782; 1783; 1784; and 1793.
- 19.
This particular economic policy resulted in peasant uprisings in Konavle (1799–1800). The increasing dissatisfaction of the peasantry, as well as the increasing political ambitions of the bourgeoisie, was rooted in the passiveness of the population in relation to French authorities dissolving the Republic at the beginning of the nineteenth century (Foretić 1980).
- 20.
In 1750, Zagreb was linked to Karlovac by a modern road and thereby also linked to the Pannonian–north Adriatic transportation system.
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Fuerst-Bjeliš, B., Glamuzina, N. (2021). The Early Modern Era—Ottoman Decline. In: The Historical Geography of Croatia. Historical Geography and Geosciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68433-4_7
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