Keywords

1 Introduction

Energy is the primary contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contributes significantly to global warming and loss of biodiversity. Access to large and cheap energy resources contributed to the most important human innovation of the last decades, including in industry an in communication. Humankind is at a pivotal time to address constant energy challenges related to both positive and negative externalities of use. In this chapter, we explore the social dimension of these challenges at the community level. Our ambition is to capture how citizens’ perception of challenges related to externalities of energy use could inform strategies of transition to energy sustainability in local communities. The concept of local action on energy is linked to that of a territory where humans and infrastructure power dynamics towards a form of development that could be more sustainable with the exploitation of locally available renewable energy resources. To capture this perception, we prepared and conducted a survey in two districts of Dakar between April and May 2019.

The literature on energy sustainability rarely addresses the social dimension of energy through the prism of individual citizens and their opinions on attributes associated to energy as a resource, as a good, and as a fuel.

Bally (2015) investigates the concept of citizens’ initiative in energy and highlights the gap between public institutions and the individual actors. The bottom-up method he proposed starts with a compilation of the initiatives that individual actors can embody in the sector as examples of relevant actions for public institutions. According to Buclet (2011), it is important to measure and analyze the results obtained by these local initiatives so that they are useful for the actors involved and ultimately contribute to their improvement. The evaluation must, therefore, support or even legitimize these emerging processes in order to make them accessible to public action.

Ayyoob (2020) explores indicators such as economy, governance, mobility, environment, population, habitat, and data in the development of smart cities in order to improve accuracy using information technologies. He discussed the indicators and proposed areas for improvement regarding the methodology for evaluating these indicators. The methodology should include a broad research strategy with a wide range of evaluation schemes.

These studies focus, respectively, on citizens’ initiative and on the potential for improving the methodology used to collect data on indicators related to these initiatives. They did question neither the individual actors mentioned in the studies nor their perception of these indicators and did not document the background of citizens’ commitment to initiatives in the energy sector. Those are the questions that this study aims to address. The chapter explores citizens’ perception in three dimensions of energy use: energy efficiency in buildings, recycling of waste to energy, and non-quantitative parameters that citizens’ associate with energy.

2 Methodological Approach

The study method is a survey conducted in 245 residence buildings located in two districts of Dakar in Senegal, namely the districts of Amitié and Fann-Point E. The survey was conducted within the framework of the project Sustainable Energy Access for Sustainable Cities (SEA4cities). The five SEA4cities scholars conducted the study with the support of local populations in target districts. The survey took place from April to May (Amitie and Fann-Point E). The survey sample size is based on population figures in the target districts provided by the National Statistics and Demography Agency (ANSD), and hypothesizing a confidence level of 95%.

The method is complementary to that of Bally (2015), who proposes a number of initiatives that could carry individual citizens as a source of information for decisions by public institutions to improve energy sustainability. Our survey method, which targets citizens brings in the process of initiatives compilation, the social context. In addition, our approach addresses potential biases that could arise from disconnection between models from literature and information from the field that connects energy behaviour with social parameters such as age, gender, level of education, and the communities’ specificities.

The method is different from that of Ayyoob (2020), who focuses on a broad research strategy with diagrams to assess the intelligence of cities as a source of information on the identification of relevant indicators; the periodic assessment of these indicators being the way to inform on their effectiveness in guiding cities towards a smarter, more sustainable and climate-resilient future.

Our method that consisted in questioning citizens directly on their energy situation, daily behaviour and opinions aims to reposition the social dimension of energy within society and to answer the question of energy meaning for energy users. Our approach consisted in relaying opinions of these users before analyzing what these opinions could mean. The collection and analysis of data form citizens involve three phases: pre-survey, survey, and post-survey.

2.1 The Pre-Investigation Phase

During this phase, we computed the study sample using data from the National Statistics and Demography Agency (ANSD), municipalities and other national agencies that store data related to buildings’ functions. The questionnaire was also prepared during this phase. The questionnaire requested data on the following parameters:

  • Technical parameters: energy appliances (type and number), daily usage (hours of use per day), consumption fuels (e.g. electricity, LPG, charcoal), period of usage (e.g. ventilation appliances and comfort temperature), and waste quantities.

  • Socio-economic parameters: energy budget, household income, perception of the social and environmental attributes of fuels.

2.2 The Investigation Phase

The main issue during this phase was to minimize potential biases on data collected. Therefore, it was necessary to ensure the survey coincided with the special periods of Ramadan and Eid to capture their impact on energy consumption. The questionnaires with answers were scanned on a daily basis and stored in the SEA4cities drive.

2.3 Post-Survey Phase

Following the collection phase, the data were compiled in an Excel format matrix as follows:

  • In rows: the code identifying the building: RCD_res_number for residence buildings.

  • In columns: the quantitative and non-quantitative data.

The quantitative data group includes building parameters and the indicators associated with energy services, such as type of lamps and hours of use per day for the lighting service. Data on four services were reported: lighting, ventilation, cooking, and waste management. Another column compiles energy data relating to other uses such as modems, TV sets, and printers.

The non-quantitative data group includes attributes associated with fuels consumed in the building. Three fuels were proposed in the questionnaire: electricity, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and charcoal. The social and environmental attributes were also pre-defined, and respondents were requested to choose the first three they associate with each of these fuels.

3 Results and Discussions

The analysis of the matrix compiling the data collected returned the following theme-based results.

3.1 Energy Efficiency in Buildings

For the first theme that looked into the potential of energy efficiency in buildings, we analyzed three (3) indicators:

  • Energy behaviour with respect to lighting

  • Energy behaviour with respect to ventilation

  • Energy behaviour with respect to other appliances recorded in buildings

We computed the average energy consumption of the 245 buildings surveyed, equivalent to 3620.27 kWh. The ventilation consumption share is 1311.22 kWh, while lighting consumed 602.75 kWh, and other appliances 1706.33 kWh. Thus, the share of energy consumption for ventilation in surveyed buildings is equivalent to 36.21%, and that of lighting is 16.6%.

3.2 Recycling Waste to Energy

With respect to the second theme that looked into the potential of waste conversion to energy, we analyzed three (3) indicators:

  • The waste production per building (in kg /year).

  • The energy potential of waste recycled by gasification (in kWh/year).

  • The energy potential of waste recycled by incineration (in kWh/year).

3.2.1 Potential Waste per Household (Kg/Year)

The first remark after processing data collected to feed these indicators is that the quantity of waste produced in the building is poorly correlated with the size of the building. The correlation factor is 0.0095 and suggests that the production of waste is not significantly correlated with the size of the building. Secondly, the data show significant discrepancies in terms of the quantities of waste produced; After extrapolation of daily quantities, the building with the highest quantities can produce 4745 kg per year, while the buildings with the lowest quantities have a potential of 380 kg per year. The average waste quantities produced is 1448 kg per year and per building.

3.2.2 Potential of Energy Recovery from Gasification

The potential of energy recovered from the waste produced by the 245 buildings surveyed is computed considering the average share of biodegradable components on the total quantities assumed at 13%, considering UCG (2016) figures. The energy potential from gasification is 1154 kWh per year.

3.2.3 Potential of Energy Recovery from Incineration

The potential of energy recovered by incineration is established considering the average share of the waste components that can be incinerated, meaning plastics, papers, and wood clogs assumed at 46.7% of the total quantities considering UCG (2016) figures. The average potential is 4145 kWh per year.

The analysis of district data shows a lower proportion of biodegradable waste in Fann-Point E and Amitié compared to proportions observed in the district of Diamniadio that was surveyed before. Therefore, incineration is more suitable for these districts that also consume on average more electricity than the district of Diamniadio.

3.3 Non-Quantitative Parameters of Energy Consumption

With regard to the third theme that looked into non-quantitative parameters of energy consumption, we analyzed two (2) indicators:

  • Fuel classification by attribute (perception of surveyed consumers)

  • Fuel classification by pollutant (perception of surveyed consumers)

3.4 Fuel Classification by Attribute

The compilation of attributes the respondents associate with LPG, charcoal, and electricity, using the pivot table, returns Figs. 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3.

Fig. 14.1
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Attributes associated with LPG

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Fig. 14.2
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Attributes associated with charcoal

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Fig. 14.3
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Attributes associated with electricity

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3.4.1 LPG

About one-third (31.02%) of households consider LPG as necessary. LPG is used for cooking in households. In the 1970s, the government of Senegal decided to promote LPG for cooking through an intensive subsidies policy that makes the fuel as accessible as charcoal, especially in urban areas, in order to address the overexploitation of biomass resources for charcoal production. We also noticed that over 29% of respondents do not have an opinion on this fuel. They use it because it is available in the market. Only 2% associate the fuel with reliable, which might be due to frequent shortages during the period 2009–2011. Two respondents consider competing alternatives are available in the market, the main alternative being charcoal.

3.4.2 Charcoal

The majority of respondents (62.9%) do not have an opinion about charcoal. This relatively high figure may relate to the difficulty to access charcoal in the market nowadays. LPG was promoted in conjunction with a repressive policy on charcoal production and sale. In Dakar, charcoal is sold in small quantities in shops and the price is often prohibitive for large use. Still, 24% of respondents perceive the fuel as reliable. The main argument that comes with the answer is even though charcoal is expensive, it has been an alternative during periods of LPG shortages. Less than 1% of respondents associates charcoal with “Accessible” and “Affordable.”

3.4.3 Electricity

The majority of respondents (63.7%) associate electricity with “Expensive.” The electricity tariff for residential buildings in Dakar during the period 2016–2019 was EUR 18 cents per kWh. This is less than the tariff in Vienna, which was about EUR 22 cents for residential buildings, but the level of revenues is much lower in Dakar. We also noticed electricity is the fuel that aroused more enthusiasm from respondents. Only1.6% said they did not have an opinion about the fuel. About 9% associate it with “Accessible.” This proportion may be due to the fact all buildings surveyed were connected to the grid and this connection was not always established by respondents to the questionnaire.

Four (4) out of 245 surveyed have decentralized solar rooftop systems operational in their buildings. Respondents were requested to note the four stages relating to the operation of these decentralized production systems, namely: acquisition, installation, operation, and maintenance. One (1) respondent found the acquisition of the system difficult, but the majority did not make comments on the acquisition. Three out of four respondents did not comment on the maintenance of their decentralized system.

3.5 Fuel Classification by Pollutant

Answering the question on their perception of the energy sector’s ecological footprint, the respondents associated their energy consumption with a list of pre-defined pollutants proposed in the questionnaire. The classification was in a ranking order from the first selection (more concerning) to the third selection (less concerning). The compilation of pollutants that the respondents associate with their energy consumption in ranking order, using the pivot table, returns Tables 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3.

Table 14.1 Pollutants ranked first
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Table 14.2 Pollutants ranked second
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Table 14.3 Pollutants ranked third
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Majority of respondents (49.4%) associate their energy footprint with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This perception might be related to the connection the media make between energy, global warming and greenhouse gas emissions. Dakar is highly impacted by sea-level rise associated with global warming. The city is located at about 22 m above sea level and has lost many coastal areas over the last decades, which has been largely reported in media.

The majority of respondents (77.1%) did not make a connection at this level. 37.1% of respondents who selected a pollutant in the first level of ranking selected smoke as the second pollutant associated with their energy consumption. The smoke in question is that of power units that are visible in the city entrance (Rufisque), and, to a lesser extent, the smoke generated by charcoal use in buildings that reported use of this fuel.

The majority of respondents (78.8%) did not make a connection at this level. 92.8% of respondents who selected pollutants in the two previous levels of ranking selected odour as the third pollutant associated with their energy consumption. The odour, in question, is that of LPG bottles and charcoal fuels during operation.

These findings based on the analysis of the data collected during the survey demonstrate, first and foremost, ordinary citizens’ interest in energy-related issues. This interest was already observed during the data collection process where interviewees raised questions about their energy situations, the possibility to access alternatives to electricity supply from the grid, the status of renewable energy resources, tariffs, etc.

Citizens are aware of the social dimension of energy but usually fail to see it in a larger perspective. For instance, LPG shortages during the period 2009–211, which explains why this fuel is still perceived as unreliable, is largely due to the global energy crisis of 2009, which also affected the charcoal cost. However, citizens defended the narrative of a perverse policy that preserves trees to the detriment of humans’ living standards. Surprisingly, the same citizens' voice concerns about the relations between their electricity use, from the utility, and the sea-level rise due to global warming. These observations suggest the social and environmental dimensions of transition to energy sustainability are context specific. Dakar has no large green lands and is, therefore, less affected by the consequences of deforestation. However, as a peninsula, it is sensitive to sea-level rise. Therefore, Communication to rally the necessary support of communities to energy transition agendas should have a localized approach. In fact, the energy transition agenda should be more context specific, and its promotion should link its measures with local concerns.

Surveyed citizens are sensitive to greenhouse gas emissions from power plants. A transitional regime that would reduce these emissions could probably spur their enthusiasm. Distributed renewable energy systems offer this alternative to electricity from large power plants connected to the grid. The solar and wind energy resources are readily available in the city, and the regulatory framework supports this alternative. However, despite the regulatory and fiscal incentives enforced since 2011, these systems’ dissemination is still marginal, as observed during the survey, with only four buildings out of 245 equipped with decentralized renewable energy systems. Two factors may explain this gap: the perception of inaccessibility and a lack of information on real figures. Energy is still perceived in its technical dimension of wires and connections that is only accessible to professionals. In this perception, the professionals who manage the grid appear as the best alternative, despite the negative attributes associated with the product of their management such as expensive, not reliable, polluting, etc. The survey reveals a form of fatalism associated with the energy situation that inhibits the citizens’ willingness to look for alternatives, including decentralized renewable energy alternatives. This is a type of crowd effect where citizens do not necessarily feel comfortable with the bigger number, but value the absence of responsibility, here in the acquisition and maintenance of decentralized energy systems. This value is due to a lack of information on parameters such as technical requirements, costs, and payback periods.

Energy cost is another parameter of interest for citizens when considering the electricity sector. Distributed renewable energy generation also contributes to lowering electricity costs, but savings only appear in the long-run. The value time of money is another issue to address in local energy agendas. Communication with citizens could, as an example, show the comparison between investment figures in T and figures of cost savings in T + 25. Beyond the communication of figures, there should be incentive mechanisms that target the financial flows between the periods of investment and cost savings by addressing the concepts of risks and solvency, which could spur on contagion effects that are specific to crowd behaviours.

4 Conclusion

The survey confirmed the citizens’ interest in the social dimensions of the energy sector. The sector does not traditionally drive the same passions in government’s communication as water or education, especially in regions that are familiar with energy access and supply issues. However, since the 2009 energy crisis, issues in the sector raise concerns among citizens. In Dakar, the security of supply of the three fuels analyzed in this study is a major concern. If insecurity in charcoal supply is caused by national policies that limit its production, insecurity in the supply of electricity and LPG are to associate with the global context partially. This global context is another concern for citizens in relation to climate variability and its consequences on the city environment. Dakar has been highly affected by sea-level rises, and our survey showed that the relationships scientists build between energy production and climate change, which is relayed by media, have reached the citizens. However, a question remains on how the perception of a costly and pollutant energy supply could translate into investments in sustainable energy systems.

We propose the social buy-in mechanism to engage citizens in driving the energy transition to sustainability. Buy-in by large groups of people has been discussed in numerous psychological publications, and, in this analysis, we propose to use this psychological dimension as the basis for communication on an energy agenda, reinforced with economic incentives, which would motivate citizens to adopt new energy behaviours. The social environment of cities is a dense network of relationships that is a breeding ground for crowd effects. Policies that promote the transition to energy sustainability could lever this effect by listening directly from citizens and by mainstreaming the specificities of local contexts in national agendas. This study was limited to the energy behaviour of citizens. We tried to understand the perception of energy from the consumers’ perspectives through the analysis of their unfiltered answers. It is undisputable that this perception is influenced by economic and technical factors that we did not look into details.