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Transnational Heterogeneities: Migration Configurations in the American Southern Cone (1970–2020)

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The Migration Crisis in the American Southern Cone

Part of the book series: Latin American Societies ((LAS))

Abstract

This chapter discusses the patterns and contradictions at play in different forms of transnational migration within, from, and to Latin America, with a particular focus on the Southern Cone. To achieve the above, we draw on our research experience in Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, contrasting it with a state-of-the-art review on Latin American transnational migration. We will first analyze the period that spans from 1970 to 2001, characterized by the tensions formed by the end of the Cold War, globalization, and an emerging “multicultural euphoria” bound to late-twentieth-century neoliberalism. Second, we will focus on “de-globalizing impulses” that characterize the transition period from 2001 to 2015. Third, we will discuss “post-globalization” and the so called “migration crisis” in Latin America that took hold from 2015 onwards. In closing, some analytic reflections will be provided on the uses of migrant transnationalism in South America.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    By “fetishistic”, we mean assuming the term to be valid a priori, without delving any deeper into the social processes that enable subjects and collectives to be constituted as transnational entities.

  2. 2.

    As Noel (2011) explains, these debates agreed on the anthropological assessment that “the chance of success at claiming membership to a social collective is tied to, among other things, a person’s ability to demonstrate certain moral qualities valued by and considered innate to the ‘group identity’ as conceived (and monitored) by members whose belonging to that group is not subject to dispute” (p. 11. Our translation). Migrant communities are, then, constituted as imagined communities (just as the communities of Nation-states are imagined). At stake in that process of social imagination are incessant conflicts that lead to the invention of traditions and of senses of belonging (elements of endless dispute).

  3. 3.

    This process was by no means specific to Latin America; other banking institutions played a similar role in other regions around the world.

  4. 4.

    Two paradigms were behind those policies. The first, multiculturalism, gained visibility in the eighties. In general terms, it argued that cultural diversity was a constituent characteristic of migrant-receiving countries, considering all liberal democracies to be multinational and/or polyethnic (Kymlicka 1995, p. 18). Its political and juridical proposal entailed a consensual combination of individual and minority rights (Kymlicka 1995 p. 181), which were hegemonic in the Global North countries until 2001 (Brubaker 2001, p. 532). Interculturalism, the second paradigm, took shape in the nineties as a critical response to multiculturalism’s flaws (Dietz and Cortés 2009). This second framework reformulates the notion of integration. It advocates multilateral integration, in which the hegemonic society transforms as it dialogues with and incorporates diversity. Both models were widespread in Latin America from 1990 to 2000, when most of the region’s countries were migrant-sending States. By that time, the importance of both paradigms was waning in public policies in the Global North (Brubaker 2001; Joppke and Morawska 2003). In Latin America, those concepts were adopted, not without tension, in the struggles of Indigenous peoples and those of African descent (Bello 2004; Walsh 2009). For an excellent critical discussion of the limitations and flaws of multiculturalism and interculturality in Latin America, see Zapata (2019).

  5. 5.

    This wave of migration was part and parcel of a logic of international capital accumulation. In 1914, 40% of all European investment in countries in the Global South (Asia, Africa, Oceania, and Latin America) went to Latin America. It should come as no surprise, then, that from 1880 to 1914, 50% of all European immigrants headed to Latin America (Ferrer 1998, p. 157).

  6. 6.

    Less than North America, where the figure stands at 82%, and more than Europe, where it is 73% (UN 2015a, pp. 1–7).

  7. 7.

    In the twenty-first century, these debates have expanded to the field of history. Several authors have asserted that transnational ties were fundamental to the social processes of earlier centuries. Transnationalism thus also provides a vantage point from which to critically reread the historical explanation of capitalism and its processes. See Castañeda (2017), Morawska (2001), and Sinatti (2008).

  8. 8.

    This debate would extend to other parts of the world in the following decades.

  9. 9.

    For Domenech (2013), the instilling of logics of control began far earlier. In the past, however, they had conserved at least some humanitarian dimensions, since global governance was based on human rights and the protection of persons.

  10. 10.

    South Americans began a return migration from Southern European countries like Spain, Portugal, and Italy from 2011 onwards (IOM 2018, p. 81), framed by increasingly harsh laws in Europe on migration flows, coupled with the criminalization of the undocumented and the establishment of internment camps for migrants. Notwithstanding, Spain is still the main European destination for South American migrants (IOM 2018, p. 81).

  11. 11.

    The primary instrument in South America to facilitate the mobility of workers is the MERCOSUR Residence Agreement enacted at this time. According to the agreement, nationals of the member States and of “friendly nations” can obtain temporary residence in the country in the sub-region to which they emigrate, whether or not they have an employment contract. Both UNASUR and the South American Conference on Migration expressed their support for this agreement and the will to work toward regional integration. That said, there were substantial differences in how the MERCOSUR Residence Agreement was implemented in the region’s countries (Novick 2010). Argentina, for instance, included the principle of residence in its constitution, and that principle is still applied. Chile is the only country that does not apply the agreement according to its convention but through bilateral agreements with four countries.

  12. 12.

    The most striking example was when, in 2005, Argentina enacted the Plan Patria Grande (“Plan for the Great Homeland”, a national program to document South American migrants). With that measure, the country unilaterally granted permanent residence status to all the citizens of MERCOSUR countries and greater MERCOSUR – that is, citizens of all South American countries except for the Guianas. The Argentine government hoped that the other States in the region would follow suit, but instead they only applied the principle of reciprocity to Argentine nationals in their countries. The benefits afforded other South Americans were minor, and obstacles – sometimes excessive obstacles – were even put up to those not from South America.

  13. 13.

    Indeed, the increase in intra-regional migration had set in four decades earlier. In the seventies, only 24% of resident migrants in Latin America were from other countries in the region. That figure grew to 37% in the eighties, 49% in the nineties, 57% in 2000, and 63% in 2010.

  14. 14.

    According to Martínez et al., “Mexico accounts for a large portion (practically 40%) of the region’s emigrants, with some 12,000,000 of its citizens living abroad, the overwhelming majority of them in the United States. Distant seconds are Colombia and El Salvador, with approximately 2,000,000 and 1,300,000 respectively […] According to the OECD (2012), the number of emigrants from Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay in its member States and region as a whole grew significantly – indeed, it almost doubled – from 2000 to 2005. The primary receiving countries in absolute terms were Argentina, Venezuela, Mexico, and Brazil” (2014, p. 14. Our translation).

  15. 15.

    According to the U.S. census, that country’s Hispanic population was 57,600,000 in 2016 or 17.8% of the total population.

  16. 16.

    The sizable number of migrants into Venezuela and Ecuador during this period were, as we shall see, the result of the forced displacement of Colombians.

  17. 17.

    In 2011, Brazil implemented a “humanitarian visa” that recognized the structural vulnerability of Haiti (Feldman-Bianco et al. 2018) as sufficient grounds for legal migration. An initial annual quota of 1200 visas was established, but pressure led to abolishing any quota in 2012 (Da Silva 2017). Peru began requiring a tourist visa issued at its consulate in Port-au-Prince in 2012. A report prepared by the Peruvian Studies Institute (IEP, in Spanish acronym) in Lima found that few applied for the visa due to its high cost and bureaucratic obstacles (Vázquez et al. 2014).

  18. 18.

    For the Brazilian case, see Da Silva (2017), Feldman-Bianco et al. (2018), and Fernandes and de Faria (2017); for the Chilean, see Rojas et al. (2015), Tijoux and Córdova Rivera (2015).

  19. 19.

    Democracy seems to be an obstacle to ultra-neoliberalism’s new forms of exploitation, and international elites support political models that undermine real participatory democracy (Appadurai 2017).

  20. 20.

    This rhetoric is selective, however. The circulation of the Global North’s capitals and goods is considered positive, while the equivalent freedom of circulation for people and goods from the Global South is categorically rejected.

  21. 21.

    The Argentinean courts declared the decree illegal in March 2018.

  22. 22.

    In drafting the 1988 constitution legislators decided not to address immigration, but rather to keep the regulations introduced under the military dictatorship.

  23. 23.

    This measure usually applies only to foreign nationals who have committed a crime in Chile. Thus, the “humanitarian return” legally equates Haitians with criminal defendants, in a clear criminalization of the migratory contingent that has suffered the most racist violence in the country in recent years. Similar processes of racialization and criminalization have also been applied towards Colombian migration in northern Chile (Stang and Stefoni 2016).

  24. 24.

    All of this, in the cases of Brazil and Argentina, in the context of harsh economic reforms that overturned the “regionalized globalization” model in favor of a resumed emphasis on primary products and the privileging of foreign speculative capital over secondary sectors (the industries, por example), with the resulting quick destruction of the domestic consumer market and destructuralization of the labor market. In this growing anti-globalization rhetoric, then, the fluidity of certain financial sectors is embraced while productive economies are faced with a set of new – and largely insurmountable – obstacles.

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Acknowledgments

This chapter was translated from Spanish to English by Jane Brodie and Wendy Gosselin and reviewed by Christine Ann Hills and Menara Guizardi. The authors thank the National Research and Development Agency of Chile (ANID) for funding the studies that gave rise to this chapter through the Projects Fondecyt 1190056, “The Boundaries of Gender Violence: Migrant Women’s Experiences in South American Border Territories” (2019–2023), and Fondecyt 1201130, “Routes and trajectories of Venezuelan migrants throughout South America” (2020–2024).

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Guizardi, M., Stefoni, C., Gonzálvez, H., Mardones, P. (2021). Transnational Heterogeneities: Migration Configurations in the American Southern Cone (1970–2020). In: Guizardi, M. (eds) The Migration Crisis in the American Southern Cone. Latin American Societies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68161-6_2

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